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other jurisdictions have found this approach
CHAPTER 9
to be less reliable than depending on their
STANDPIPE SYSTEMS
emergency responder’s own equipment.
A fire standpipe system is a network of piping
in tall or large structures that delivers water
for manual firefighting. Water is fed into these
systems either automatically through a water
supply connection, manually through hose
lines into a fire department connection (FDC),
or both. The system piping delivers water to
fire hose connections (FHCs) throughout the
building, usually in enclosed or exterior stairs
(figure 9.1). A properly designed, approved,
and installed standpipe system precludes the
need for long fire hose stretches.
Figure 9.2. A training session showing firefighters
connecting hose from a standpipe pack to a FHC.
The vertical pipes that feed FHCs on multiple
floors are called standpipes or risers. Pipes
that feed two or more FHCs on a single floor
are called horizontal standpipes. Vertical
and horizontal standpipes are typically
interconnected with feed main piping to form
a single system (figure 9.3). This allows the
FDC(s) to feed all FHCs concurrently, thereby
simplifying emergency operations.
Fire Hose Connection
Figure 9.1. An exterior dry standpipe with
an FDC on the bottom and a FHC at each
fire escape platform.
Standpipe Riser
Firefighters can extend hose lines from
FHCs for interior firefighting operations. To
facilitate such operations, engine companies
in jurisdictions with standpipe systems
often carry bundles or packs of hose called
standpipe packs (figure 9.2). In addition to
Riser Isolation Valve
FDC
Feed Main
Check
hose, these standpipe packs may contain a
Valve
nozzle, adapters, valve handles, a pressure
Water Supply
gauge or piezometer, door chocks, and related
Figure 9.3. A schematic diagram of a
equipment to allow connections to be made
standpipe system.
and to overcome problems such as vandalized
systems. Some jurisdictions have required
Standpipe systems are, in effect, a critical
certain buildings to store caches of such
component in the supply of water to interior
equipment at strategic locations; however,
firefighting crews. Deficiencies can have
disastrous consequences. For example,
58
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
standpipe system inadequacies were reported
Another example is a pier that is structurally
as a factor in the 1991 Meridian Plaza high-
unable to support fire apparatus access.
rise fire in Philadelphia8 (which killed three
firefighters — figure 9.4) and the 2007 Deutsche
Fire service hose connections are also
installed in sprinkler systems in some
Bank Building fire in New York City (which
killed two firefighters).
warehouses and bulk merchandising spaces.
These are intended for final extinguishment,
or mop-up operations rather than fire attack.
They do not constitute standpipe systems
and do not provide the needed flow or
pressure for effective fire attack.
The installation standard for standpipe
systems is NFPA 14, Standard for the
Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems.
This standard allows options for FHCs,
valves, and other design features. This
chapter illustrates ways that designers
Figure 9.4. The Meridian Plaza high-rise fire.
can implement various options in different
situations to assist the fire service.
Systems are classified according to usage:
fire service use (Class I), occupant use (Class
Standpipe systems are often combined
II), or combined fire service and occupant use
with sprinkler systems, which are covered
(Class III). The considerations in this chapter
in Chapter 8. Fire department connections
apply to Class I systems and fire service
are covered in Chapter 10. For systems to
portions of Class III systems. Occupant
be effective, it is imperative that they be
use systems may only be used where the
regularly inspected, tested and maintained.
occupants are properly trained and equipped;
Impairment programs and maintenance are
for this reason, their use has declined.
covered in Chapter 13.
Building codes, fire codes, life safety
System Design
codes, insurance carriers, and owner
criteria specify when to provide standpipe
Most new standpipe systems are designed
systems. The code is usually a model code
by the hydraulic calculation method. This
adopted by a jurisdiction, sometimes with
ensures that the water supply, pipe sizes
local amendments. The trigger to require a
used, and pumps (if needed) will provide the
standpipe system is usually building height
necessary flow and pressure at a specified
or floor size. Typical applications include
number of FHCs in the system. Where FDCs
tall buildings, shopping malls, and other
supply all or part of the standpipe demand,
buildings with a large floor area.
designers and code officials must obtain
from emergency responders the worst-
In some cases code officials may allow
case estimated water supply available from
a standpipe system to substitute for fire
pumpers that are expected to respond and
apparatus access. One example is a side
feed the FDC.
of a building with a railroad spur and no
apparatus access. FHCs could be located
It is crucial that the proper range of pressure
outside each fire service access door.
is provided at all FHCs. Firefighters may be
able to compensate for improper pressure
8. Federal Emergency Management Agency, ”Building Fire
One Meridian Plaza”, USFA-TR-049, February 1991.
at an FHC by either boosting the system
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
59
pressure with fire service pumpers through
because additional pressure is needed to
the FDC or by throttling down the control
compensate for pressure loss through the
valve at the FHC. However, both of these
hose line.
approaches are last resorts and should
Remote portions of sprinklered floors may
only be needed if design or installation
was inadequate or if a system deteriorated
be up to 200 ft. from the closest FHC. Even
longer hose lengths would be necessary
over time. Pumpers will be unable to boost
pressure to compensate for any deficiencies
where a fire must be fought from a more
distant FHC due to conditions such as
in portions of tall standpipe systems that
exceed their pumping capacity.
wind direction, ventilation paths, occupant
location, and occupant egress routes.
The selection of a minimum design pressure
to be provided at FHCs must be based on
Given these examples that illustrate how fire
service equipment affects the pressure needed
accurate assumptions about the equipment
used by the fire service. One common
at FHCs, communication between designers,
emergency responders, and code officials is
minimum design pressure is 65 psi. This is
based on the friction loss through 100 ft. of
critical. Designers and code officials should
ensure that the minimum design pressure is
2½” hose and a smooth bore nozzle (figure
9.5) that requires a minimum pressure of 50
based on a thorough understanding of fire
service equipment — including hose size, hose
psi at the nozzle to be effective. Variation in
equipment and procedures can render this
lengths, and nozzle types. This will ensure
the adequacy of fire streams for the safety of
pressure inadequate; for example, smaller
diameter hose, fog or combination nozzles,
firefighters performing an interior fire attack.
and longer hose lines that are often needed
In areas subject to freezing temperatures, dry
to reach a fire location.
type systems are used to keep water from
freezing and rendering a system unusable.
Heat tape and insulation of wet systems may
be permissible for freeze protection; however,
this option may be less effective because
water is not normally flowing through the
piping. Where freezing is not a concern,
standpipe systems should be wet type so
that water is immediately available at FHCs.
Large dry standpipe systems deserve special
consideration. As the size of a dry system
Figure 9.5. On the left is a smooth-bore nozzle
increases, the time required to deliver
that produces a solid stream. On the right is a
water to the remote FHC increases due to
combination nozzle that can be adjusted from a
the larger pipe volume that must be filled
straight stream to a wide fog stream.
when the system is activated. This can be
mitigated by subdividing the system into
Another common minimum pressure — in
smaller independent systems, or zones.
particular those designed since the mid-
However, this prevents them from being
1990s — is 100 psi. Since some fog or
interconnected to be fed by the same FDC.
combination nozzles require 100 psi at
See the Quantity section of Chapter 10 for
the discharge end of the standpipe hose
specific considerations for signage to help
line, providing 100 psi at the FHC may be
alleviate potential confusion where systems
inadequate regardless of hose size or length
are not interconnected.
60
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Pressure-Regulating Devices
PRDs fall into three categories: pressure-
reducing valves (PRVs), pressure control
A maximum pressure limit of 175 psi is
valves, and pressure-restricting devices.
typical at FHCs on Class I and III standpipe
Pressure-restricting devices do not limit
systems. This is considered the maximum
pressure during static (non-flowing)
safe operating pressure of hose and devices
conditions, nor do they maintain a constant
used by firefighters. The maximum working
discharge pressure. These devices
pressure limit of many fire protection
incorporate orifice plates, mechanical
components is also 175 psi. Higher pressures
pressure restrictors, or valve limiting stops.
will necessitate the use of pressure-
Pressure-restricting devices are not used for
regulating devices (PRDs) to restrict system
new Class I standpipe systems. However,
pressures (figure 9.6).
designers may encounter these when
redesigning existing systems — which would
provide the opportunity to implement some
or all of the considerations below.
PRVs and pressure control valves limit both
static and residual (flowing) pressures.
They are factory set to attain specific outlet
pressures with specific inlet pressures. It is
important for designers to specify the full
range of possible inlet pressures at such
valves, as well as the desired outlet pressure,
so that they may be designed properly and
then installed on the correct floors. Pressure
fluctuations in the water supply as well as the
greatest possible range of fire pump pressure
Figure 9.6. An FHC equipped with a
capacity must be factored in.
pressure-regulating device.
PRVs and pressure control valves have other
Proper design, installation, acceptance
disadvantages. Their failure rate has been
testing, and maintenance of PRDs is
high, resulting in the addition of testing
imperative so that firefighters have adequate
requirements (see NFPA 14 and NFPA 25).
pressure for hose streams. Problems with
Also, many cannot be adjusted by firefighters
PRDs have been cited as factors in several
during a fire, or they require special tools and
major high-rise fires.9 For example, during the
knowledge.
Meridian Plaza fire in Philadelphia mentioned
above, failure to coordinate settings on
One reliable means of limiting pressures
these devices with fire service equipment
in standpipe systems is to design them to
resulted in inadequately low pressure for
eliminate the need for PRDs or limit the
hose streams. Improper PRD settings during
number of floors on which they will be
the 1988 First Interstate Bank building fire
needed. In shorter buildings, careful attention
in Los Angeles resulted in excess pressure
to the design of pumps and the maximum
that made hose handling difficult and burst
pressure supplied by incoming water mains
several hose lines.
can accomplish this. In taller buildings with
multiple vertical standpipe zones, it may be
possible to apply the same concept to the low
9. Federal Emergency Management Agency, ”Special Report:
Operational Considerations for Highrise Firefighting”, USFA-
zone. Another design option that can limit the
TR-082, April 1996.
need for PRDs is a variable-speed fire pump.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
61
If the use of PRDs cannot be avoided, certain
design features will help to balance their
disadvantages. The easier the valves are to
adjust in the field, the faster the fire service
can overcome any unforeseen situation.
However, this necessitates special training.
Some jurisdictions may not want their
firefighters to make such adjustments; others
may prefer valves that can be easily adjusted
and specify that adjustment tools and
Figure 9.7. A 2½” threaded FHC. The valve is
instructions be kept in a secure yet accessible
opened and closed with the red hand wheel. The
location such as the fire command center or a
hose outlet has a 2½” by 1½” reducer to facilitate
locked cabinet near the fire alarm annunciator.
the use of different hose sizes. The 1½” cap is
attached to the valve body by a chain.
Firefighters are taught that a FHC can be
used as an inlet if the FDC is not usable
Location of Stair FHCs
during an incident. This is not possible with
Enclosed, fire-resistance rated stairs have
PRDs, which permit water flow in a single
direction. Standpipe systems with PRDs
traditionally been good locations for FHCs for
the safety of firefighters. They can set up and
should incorporate a supplemental inlet
at the level of fire service entry to serve
begin their attack from within the protected
stair enclosure. If a quick evacuation
as a backup to the FDC. This is especially
important for systems with a single FDC. If
becomes necessary, the hose then functions
as a lifeline, leading the firefighters back to
the supplemental inlet is on the main feed
piping upstream of riser isolation valves (see
the protection of the stairs. Disadvantages
of hose lines keeping stair doors open are
figure 9.3 above), it will feed all standpipe
risers. Typically an extra FHC without a PRD
discussed in the following section.
will suffice as a supplemental inlet; however,
Firefighters often stretch hose from a FHC
it should be clearly marked for its purpose so
below the fire floor for their protection. Below
that firefighters do not inadvertently use it as
a fire is almost always a safer location than the
a hose outlet.
same level or above. In stairs with intermediate
landings between floors, some code officials or
Fire Hose Connections
emergency responders may prefer that FHCs
FHCs in Class I systems are typically 2½ inch
be located on the intermediate stair landings
threaded outlets (figure 9.7). As discussed in
(figure 9.8). In this manner, firefighters can
the Fire Hydrant Features section of Chapter 4,
set up below the fire floor but need less hose
it is essential that hose connection type and
compared to a FHC at the main landing a full
size match those used by the fire service in the
story below the fire floor.
jurisdiction where the building is located. For
example, incompatible hose threads were a
factor in a 1992 Indianapolis, IN fire that killed
two firefighters.10
10. Federal Emergency Management Agency, ”Indianapolis
Athletic Club Fire”, USFA-TR-063, February 1992.
62
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Figure 9.8. A FHC on intermediate landing
(lower right) as viewed from the main landing
(foreground) where the stair entry door is located.
If FHCs are located on main landings,
consider their position in relation to doors.
The FHCs should not be obstructed when the
doors are open. Designers should position
Figure 9.9. A remote FHC in a cabinet in a
the outlet to permit the hose line to be
corridor. The sign near the floor is intended to
stretched out the door without kinking and
help locate the cabinet in light smoke conditions.
with as little obstruction as possible to the
Note that the hose outlet is angled to facilitate
connection of hose.
stair. Firefighters may use the door itself as a
heat shield when initially opening it.
Remote FHCs can often be hard for
firefighters to find. They should be placed as
Location of Remote FHCs
uniformly as possible on all floors to make
Remote FHCs are sometimes needed outside
them easier to find. Highly visible signs or
of stairs (figure 9.9) if those located within
other markings can assist firefighters in
stairs are beyond a given travel distance
locating them quickly, along with notation of
to the farthest points of a particular floor.
their locations on pre-incident plans. These
Consider how firefighters will access and
may be tailored to décor or occupancy if
utilize remote FHCs during a fire incident
acceptable to code officials and emergency
rather than solely locating them to be code
responders. NFPA 170, Standard for Fire
compliant. Remote FHCs within rooms,
Safety and Emergency Symbols, contains
suites, or tenant spaces are not likely to be
symbols for marking standpipe outlets
used for fire attack within the same spaces. In
(another term for FHCs).
buildings with a corridor system, the corridor
walls, ceilings, doors, and other openings
Location of Horizontal Exit FHCs
may be rated for fire or smoke resistance. If
Horizontal exits are doors within fire-rated
so, they provide some degree of protection
walls that substitute for exit stairs in some
for firefighters, although it is usually less than
buildings. FHCs are typically placed on both
that provided by a stair enclosure.
sides of such doors (figure 9.10). Firefighters
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
63
use these FHCs in the same manner as stair
FHCs — to stretch hose lines from one side
of the horizontal exit to attack a fire on the
other side. The horizontal exit wall and door
provide protection just as a stair would.
Figure 9.11. Floor striping indicates a FHC access
path in a parking garage. Bollards provide vehicle
impact protection. Bright signs at the top of the
columns help firefighters locate the FHC.
Exterior FHCs
Figure 9.10. A double set of horizontal exit doors.
Tenants or suites with exterior-only access
One FHC is shown to the right of the doors;
pose yet another challenge for standpipe
another is on the opposite side.
designers and code officials. Often they are
Firefighters typically use a FHC on one side of
beyond the hose reach limitation from the
a horizontal exit to attack a fire on the opposite
interior FHCs. Some jurisdictions allow this
side. The hose will then serve as a lifeline to
arrangement if apparatus access is nearby
the safe side of the wall as discussed above.
to permit attack hose lines to be stretched
For this reason, designers and code officials
from pumpers. However, this is not an
should remember to measure hose reach from
option for areas inaccessible to pumpers
remote locations to the FHCs on opposite
such as pedestrian promenades and
sides of horizontal exit doors.
boardwalks. In such situations, the solution
for hose reach coverage is exterior FHCs
(figure 9.12). In cold climates, a freeze-proof
Location of Parking Garage FHCs
valve arrangement is necessary.
Parking garages deserve special
consideration. Vehicle impact protection is
important, especially for FHCs adjacent to
drive aisles. Adequate access and marking
should be provided (figure 9.11). This access
path should be outside the designated
parking spaces and clearly marked. If this
access has the potential to be mistaken for a
shopping cart storage area, consider a raised,
curbed access path.
Figure 9.12. A pedestrian promenade
serving ground-floor tenant spaces with
no fire apparatus access. Below the red
control valve is an exterior FHC.
64
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
FHCs are also provided at access points to
2014 New York City fire that resulted in a
flat roofs in newer buildings. This allows
civilian fatality in a stair also mention this
firefighters to more easily stretch a hose line
coordination issue.12,13
to fight a roof fire.
FHC Position
All FHCs should be positioned so that
firefighters can connect hose to the outlet and
operate the control valve handle while wearing
heavy gloves (figure 9.13). A good height would
be approximately adult waist or chest height.
Emergency responders should be consulted
for proper clearance from walls, cabinets, or
other obstructions. Coordination is the key to
preventing conflicts between features.
Figure 9.14. A training session showing a
firefighter chocking open a stair door to initiate a
fire attack from a stair FHC.
The conflicting needs to attack the fire and
to protect remaining occupants can be
challenging and difficult to manage under
the best conditions. This can be complicated
further by stair door locking arrangements,
conflicting evacuation instructions, occupants
not following evacuation instructions, the need
for the fire service to operate from several
Figure 9.13. A FHC in a cabinet being checked
by an inspector wearing a firefighting glove.
stairs, or the need for total building evacuation
during major incidents. Several alternative
Fire Attack from Stairs
arrangements can help mitigate this dilemma.
Fire attack using hose lines from stair FHCs
One way of maintaining stair integrity during
requires stair doors to be propped open
standpipe operations is to locate FHCs
(figure 9.14). This helps keep the hose from
just outside stair doors instead of within
becoming pinched or kinked and thereby
stair enclosures. One disadvantage of this
restricting water flow; however, this also
approach is that the fire attack must begin
allows smoke and heat to enter the stairs.
without the protection of the stair enclosure.
Without careful coordination, occupants
Another disadvantage is a reduction in the
remaining above the level of the fire can be
lifeline concept described above. Some
endangered and undesired ventilation flow
jurisdictions have allowed this arrangement
paths can occur. This situation contributed to
if the FHCs are immediately adjacent to
the deaths of six civilians in a stair during a
the stair (figure 9.15). If conditions warrant,
2003 fire in the Cook County Administration
Building in Chicago.11 Media accounts of a
killed-1-caused-overloaded-power-strip-article-1.1567795
11. James Lee Witt Associates, Independent Review of Cook
continues-into-deadly-manhattan-high-rise-fire
County Administration Building Fire, 2003.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
65
hose can still be stretched through the stair
vestibule between the stairs and the building
from a lower level. Disadvantages should be
interior. Although such vestibules require
weighed against the possible advantages
additional space, they may be provided
of maintaining the integrity of the stair
anyway for refuge areas for individuals
enclosure — for both occupant and firefighter
with mobility impairments or to create
protection. This approach would require
smokeproof stairs (figure 9.17). A potential
specific approval of code officials in addition
disadvantage of using smokeproof stair
to coordination with emergency responders.
vestibules is that the air flow path (and
therefore the path of heat and smoke) may be
towards these vestibules during a fire.
Figure 9.15. A FHC on the corridor side of a stair
door (on the left).
Figure 9.17. A standpipe riser and a FHC in a
vestibule. The corridor door (foreground) can
A second alternative is to provide FHCs both
remain open for hose line use while the stair door
inside and outside the stair doors (figure
(background) remains closed.
9.16). Although this provides the greatest
flexibility, it adds cost. Some jurisdictions
Another type of smokeproof stair utilizes
have been successful in mandating this by
exterior balconies between the stair and the
code amendment.
interior (figure 9.18). These balconies allow
smoke to dissipate without entering the stair.
Even if both doors are open for hose line use,
smoke is not likely to enter the stair.
Figure 9.16. A standpipe riser and a 2½ in. FHC
are located within the stair in the background. The
FHC shown in the wall cabinet outside the stair is
1½ in. This was deemed adequate for many fire
situations in this fully sprinklered building.
A third approach to maintaining the integrity
Figure 9.18. An exterior view of open air
of stair enclosures during fire suppression
vestibules (arrow) between the stair
operations is to place FHCs in a fire-rated
and the interior of a building.
66
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
The fire service elevator lobbies discussed
Designers and code officials should ensure
in the Elevators section of Chapter 6 provide
that each riser isolation valve controls one
yet another option for location of FHCs. Much
entire standpipe riser. Isolation valves in
like the vestibules discussed above, if FHCs
the feed main piping that can shut off more
are located in the lobby instead of the stair,
than one downstream standpipe riser would
fire attack can proceed without opening the
not permit the isolation of one riser at a
stair door.
time. Conversely, each standpipe should be
provided with one single isolation valve rather
Isolation Valves
than multiple valves for different sections.
Each standpipe riser is provided with its own
Where possible, the isolation valves for
isolation valve (figure 9.19) to permit shutting
standpipe risers in fire-rated stairs should
off one standpipe riser without interrupting
be within the stair enclosure for protection
the supply to other risers (see the diagram
as discussed in the Control Valves section of
in figure 9.3 above). This allows firefighters
Chapter 8 (figure 9.19). They should also be
to shut down a standpipe riser that has a
located on a level as close as possible to the
problem such as a leak, a failure, or several
fire service entry level. This may take a bit
open FHCs. They can then use the remaining
more piping if the feed main is located on a
standpipe(s). These problems often arise or
different level. However, it can facilitate rapid
occur during an emergency incident rather
access to the isolation valve.
than in advance, making it important to
locate the isolation valves quickly.
Regardless of their location, it is important
for isolation valves to remain open. Codes
often require them to be supervised
electrically by the fire alarm system (see
Chapter 11) or another method. Electronic
supervision can help ensure that valves are
returned to the open position after repair or
maintenance.
Figure 9.19. A standpipe isolation valve on a feed
main (entering horizontally from the upper right)
leading to a vertical standpipe riser (on the left).
The valve is located within the stair enclosure to
protect both the valve and the firefighters who
may need to access it.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
67
Questions to Ask - Standpipe Systems
■■
What equipment (hose length, size, and nozzles) does the fire service use for
standpipe operations?
■■
Is the minimum pressure at FHCs coordinated with this equipment?
■■
Is the maximum pressure not exceeded at any FHC?
■■
Has the design minimized the need for PRDs?
■■
Are PRDs properly designed and installed on the correct levels?
■■
Will PRDs need to be field adjustable? Where must adjustment tools and instructions
be stored?
■■
Are dry standpipe systems designed to mitigate long fill times?
■■
Do FHC threads match the fire service hose?
■■
Are FHCs positioned to allow hose connection and valve handle operation with a
gloved hand?
■■
Must stair FHCs be on main landings or intermediate landings?
■■
Are remote FHCs outside stairs accessible and marked?
■■
Are garage FHCs accessible and protected from vehicle traffic?
■■
Will exterior FHCs be necessary for spaces without interior access?
■■
Can FHCs be located to allow fire attack without compromising the stair enclosure?
■■
Are standpipe isolation valves located for rapid access and protection of firefighters?
■■
Does each standpipe isolation valve feed only one entire standpipe?
■■
Have emergency responders been trained on system features and operations?
Resources
■■
IFC
■■
NFPA 1
■■
NFPA 13E, Recommended Practice for Fire Department Operations in Properties
Protected by Sprinkler and Standpipe Systems
■■
NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems
■■
NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire
Protection Systems
■■
NFPA 170, Standard for Fire Safety and Emergency Symbols
■■
FM Global Data Sheet 3-11, Pressure Reducing Valves for Fire Protection Service
■■
FM Global Data Sheet 3-11, Standpipe and Hose Systems
■■
OSHA Standard Standpipe and hose systems, 29 CFR 1910.158
68
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Impairment programs and maintenance are
CHAPTER 10
covered in Chapter 13.
FIRE DEPARTMENT
CONNECTIONS
Quantity
A fire department connection (FDC) enables
Often a single FDC such as the one in figure
the fire service to connect hose lines from
10.1 will suffice. In some cases, multiple
one or more pumpers and feed water into
interconnected FDCs will be provided for
a system to augment its automatic water
redundancy. For example, high-rise fire
supply. Systems include sprinkler systems
experience has shown that broken glass
(see Chapter 8), standpipe systems (see
and debris falling from a fire area can
Chapter 9), or other water-based suppression
damage hose lines. Two FDCs are therefore
systems. Each FDC has one or more fire hose
typically provided for each zone in high-rise
inlets (figure 10.1). In manual dry standpipe
buildings; this will increase the dependability
systems, FDCs are the only water supply.
of the water supply as long they are located
remotely from each other. Each FDC should
also be sized to independently handle the full
system demand.
Another reason for multiple FDCs would be
for a system with a large demand. Multiple
FDCs can supply a large flow of water to a
single system. Examples of buildings or uses
that may have large-flow-demand systems
include aircraft hangers and warehouses
with high-piled storage, high-rack storage,
Figure 10.1. Charged hose lines connected to a
or highly flammable materials. A single FDC
wall-mounted FDC with two inlets.
with additional inlets can handle a large flow
The requirement to provide an FDC typically
but would not provide the redundancy of
appears in the installation standard for the
multiple FDCs in different locations.
corresponding type of system. This chapter
Multiple FDCs can also supply separate
provides guidance on FDC quantity, number
systems within a single building. A separate
and type of inlets, location, position, marking,
FDC could feed each separate sprinkler
and signage. This guidance, together with the
system. In other cases, sprinkler and
requirements and preferences of code officials
standpipe systems can have separate FDCs
and emergency responders, will facilitate rapid
(figure 10.2). The separate FDC arrangement
augmentation of the water supply to standpipe
precludes the possibility of two or more
systems and other water-based systems.
FDCs being out of service due to a single
In some cases, FDCs are not required
pipe break, leak, or other problem. However,
because they would be of little or no value.
hose lines must be fed into each separate
Examples include very small buildings,
connection that needs its supply augmented.
remote buildings that are inaccessible to the
fire service, and large open-sprinkler deluge
systems that exceed the pumping capability
of the fire service.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
69
and minimize fill time. Signage helps direct
firefighters to the appropriate FDC (figure
10.4), along with proper pre-incident planning.
Figure 10.2. Separate sprinkler and
Figure 10.4. A sign indicating the areas covered
standpipe FDCs. To feed both systems,
by separate manual dry standpipe systems. The
at least one hose line must be connected to at
colors and zone numbers correspond to zones
least one inlet on each of the two FDCs.
with separate FDCs.
Conversely, combined FDCs allow all
Inlets
interconnected systems to be fed from any
FDC (figure 10.3). As complexes get larger
To permit the connection of hose lines, the
with a multitude of systems, interconnecting
inlet size and type must match the hose
FDCs greatly simplifies fire service support
couplings used by the fire service. The type
of such systems. The disadvantage is that
can be either threaded or quick-connect.
a single-point failure of the interconnecting
Quick-connect hose inlets are usually 4 or
piping will preclude augmentation of any
5 inches in size (figure 10.5) and one inlet
system. For these reasons, preferences for
usually suffices even for large flows.
FDC interconnection will vary by jurisdiction.
Figure 10.5. A quick-connect type of FDC.
Figure 10.3. A combined sprinkler
In jurisdictions where the fire service uses
and standpipe FDC.
threaded hose couplings, FDCs usually include
Manual dry standpipe systems (with
one or more 2½-inch hose inlets. The thread
no permanent water supply) cannot be
type must match the hose used — usually NH
interconnected with automatic sprinkler
Type (American National Fire Hose Connection
systems. As discussed in the System Design
Screw Thread). To facilitate the connection of
section of Chapter 9, individual manual dry
the externally threaded (male) end of fire hose
standpipe systems may intentionally be left
lines, threaded inlets should be the swiveling,
separate in order to keep their volume down
internally threaded (female) type.
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Many FDCs for threaded hose have two
inlet connections (see figure 10.3 above);
these are often referred to as siamese
connections. A rule of thumb is to provide
one inlet for each 250 gallons per minute
(gpm) of system demand, rounded up to
the next highest increment of 250 gpm. For
example, if the system demand is 700 gpm,
the designer would specify three inlets.
Likewise, a system with a demand of 800
gpm would need four inlets.
Figure 10.6. An FDC with locked plugs.
The key is in the key box below the inlets.
When four inlets or more are needed,
designers should consider placing multiple
In some areas, theft of brass inlets and entire
interconnected FDCs on different portions of
connections is a problem. Designers of new
the building. The latter scenario would provide
systems and owners of existing systems
the redundancy advantage discussed above,
should consult code officials to determine if
as well as facilitate separate pumpers feeding
additional security measures are appropriate
each FDC from different water supply points.
and which measures to utilize.
In areas where responding apparatus carry
Location
hose with different couplings, FDCs may
be provided with both threaded and quick-
In general, FDCs should be easily accessible
connect couplings. This can be beneficial in
to fire service pumpers and located near an
areas with different fire service organizations
adequate water supply. This will facilitate
providing mutual aid to each other.
rapid backup water supply to the systems. In
some jurisdictions, emergency responders
Threaded hose inlets should have plugs (see
are specifically responsible to approve FDC
figure 10.2 above) or caps (see figure 10.3
locations. Here the communication with
above) to help prevent damage, tampering,
response personnel is not only desirable —
and infestation by animals and insects.
it is required.
However, plugs or caps are easy to remove
and are often missing. Debris in an FDC can
A commonly-specified location for FDCs is the
restrict the flow through it, cause delays
street side of buildings. The intent is to make
while the debris is removed, or even clog the
them immediately accessible to approaching
nozzle on a hose line being operated from a
fire service pumpers. The street side is
standpipe during a fire attack.
obvious in urban settings where buildings
front directly onto the streets. However, for
Lockable inlet plugs are available for increased
buildings set back from the street, the street
security (figure 10.6). In some cases they will
side may be subject to some interpretation. In
be required by code officials or emergency
these cases, the designer should consult code
responders; if not, designers should find out if
officials and emergency responders about
they are acceptable prior to specifying them.
apparatus approach direction and operational
Master keys to the locks are often located in
procedures.
key boxes as discussed in Chapter 6. Building
owners may be responsible for providing keys
to the fire service.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
71
close to fire hydrants and other water supply
sources. It also can help facilitate fire service
apparatus positioning in several ways. One
example would be to enable pumpers to leave
the portions of fire lanes closest to buildings
available for aerial apparatus. In advanced
incidents, pumpers can remain at FDCs
located outside of collapse zones.
Figure 10.7. A fire hydrant in close proximity to an
FDC (near the building entrance in the background).
This allows the pumper to use its large-diameter
intake hose to connect to the hydrant (foreground)
and a pre-connected hose line to be stretched to
the FDC (center of photo). Water will be supplied
from the hydrant through the intake hose, through
the pumper to boost pressure, and then through
the hose line into the FDC.
An important consideration is the location
Figure 10.8. A free-standing FDC in a
of FDCs in relation to nearby fire hydrants or
parking lot island near a fire hydrant.
other water supply sources, (such as ponds,
Free-standing FDCs have one drawback for
lakes, or cisterns). Some jurisdictions require
buildings that have no below-grade levels in
FDCs to be within a certain distance of the fire
areas subject to freezing temperatures. The
hydrant or other supply point. This allows a
FDC feed pipe must be carefully designed for
pumper to hook up directly to a hydrant with
drainage into a pit with adequate capacity
its intake hose and then use a short hose line
and acceptable maintenance access. In areas
(perhaps pre-connected) to quickly feed the
with extremely cold weather, this may not be
FDC (figure 10.7). For example, if pumpers
an option acceptable to code officials.
in a jurisdiction each carry a 150 ft.-long
pre-connected hose line that can be used to
Designers and code officials should consider
supply FDCs, a maximum distance of 100 feet
site conditions leading to the FDC to make
will enable firefighters to manually stretch
it easier for firefighters to stretch hose
this hose to the FDC regardless of the position
lines to it. Several steps, grassy areas, or
of the pumper at the hydrant. If there are
low ground cover will not slow down this
multiple FDCs, each should meet this distance
process. However, if a firefighter needs to
requirement from separate hydrants to allow
negotiate walls, climb a ladder, maneuver
for redundant augmentation of system supply.
around a fence or hedgerow, or remove an
obstruction, the operation may be delayed.
Some jurisdictions may prefer that FDCs be
Designers should consider the growth
located near building entrances. This may
potential of nearby landscaping so that the
depend upon their standard procedure and
FDC remains accessible.
the number of responding engine companies.
Fixed obstructions are easy to avoid with
Free-standing FDCs are available for situations
proper design coordination. These include
where they are located away from buildings
walls, vegetation, planters, fences, pipes,
(figure 10.8). This option is helpful to get FDCs
72
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
poles, downspouts, and built-in or heavy
furniture. FDCs can even be obstructions
to each other if located too close to allow
connection of hose lines without kinking.
Transient or temporary obstructions are
trickier but can often be foreseen. Locations
that are likely to be blocked should be
avoided. For example, loading docks are
subject to temporary storage and vehicular
traffic (figure 10.9). Another poor location
would be in front of a supermarket or store
where stock or carts may block the FDC
at any time. This may be a good reason to
deviate from the street front location, or
to locate the FDC in a column abutting the
road. Designers and code officials should
always keep in mind how buildings will be
Figure 10.10. An FDC (see arrow) located adjacent
used when people, vehicles, and objects are
to gas service piping and a meter. The breakaway
introduced after occupancy.
caps make it necessary for a firefighter to swing
an axe or other tool to remove them. This is an
accident waiting to happen that could be avoided
through careful design coordination.
Position
The height at which FDCs are mounted is
important to enable a firefighter to easily
connect hose lines. A good height range is
approximately thigh to waist level for an adult.
At this range, a firefighter can cradle the hose in
one hand while turning the FDC inlet fitting with
the other hand (figure 10.11). Sufficient clear
Figure 10.9. A loading dock with merchandise.
area around the FDC will enable a firefighter
to complete this operation efficiently.
Locate FDCs away from likely sources of fire
that may make it difficult or impossible for a
firefighter to stretch a hose line to it. These
include fuel tanks, gas meters, and other
hazardous materials and processes (figure
10.10). It is also good practice to locate FDCs
away from windows, doors, or vents from
which fire, heat, or smoke could be emitting.
In areas subject to heavy snowfalls, FDCs
should be positioned so that they are not
subject to being buried under plowed snow.
Figure 10.11. A firefighter connecting a
hose line to an FDC inlet.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
73
If FDCs are located in landscaped areas,
position the FDC based on the final grade.
If the grade is built up in one area with a
mound of soil or mulch to achieve the correct
height, this can be inadvertently changed
later by a landscaper. Or, if a platform is built
to achieve the correct height, a fall hazard is
created for firefighters who may be working
in the dark and/or in smoky conditions (figure
10.12). These should not be considered as
Figure 10.13. An FDC recessed into a wall. Note
equivalent to positioning the FDC at a proper
the notch on left prevents hose lines from kinking.
height above grade level.
Marking and Signage
Marking and signage for FDCs serve several
purposes. These include helping firefighters
to find the FDC and providing information
about the system it feeds (type, coverage,
and design). Pre-incident plans should also
indicate the location of all FDCs.
Prominent marking will allow arriving
firefighters to quickly locate FDCs. One
example of signage can be found in NFPA
170, Standard for Fire Safety and Emergency
Symbols (figure 10.14). Prominent signs can
help greatly where the FDC is on a building
set back from the street.
Figure 10.12. A platform built up to reach an FDC.
This creates an unnecessary fall hazard.
Consider the locations of entrances and exits
when locating FDCs. A charged hose line is
very rigid and will block an outward-swinging
door or pose a trip hazard. Avoid locating
FDCs with their inlets pointed in the direction
of doors, so that firefighter access and
occupant egress is not impeded.
FDCs subject to vehicle damage should be
Figure 10.14. An FDC sign with the NFPA 170
protected by barricades such as the bollards
symbols for both sprinkler and standpipe systems.
often used near fire hydrants (see the Fire
Hydrant Placement section of Chapter 4).
Some jurisdictions require a light at FDCs
Alternatives to protect wall-mounted FDCs
to help firefighters identify their locations.
include recessing them (figure 10.13) or
These are particularly beneficial in the dark.
providing a guard.
Other jurisdictions, especially those prone to
foggy conditions, require a strobe near the
FDC that flashes upon sprinkler activation.
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
FDCs themselves should indicate whether
these cases, a sign indicating the maximum
the connection feeds sprinklers, standpipes,
depth and longest horizontal run of pipe
or both. The system type is usually cast with
gives a pump operator an idea of the
raised lettering into the plate surrounding
pressure needed to reach the most remote
the inlets. Color-coding is employed in some
areas of the system.
jurisdictions to differentiate system type.
In some circumstances, an FDC will feed a
Pumper operators are normally trained to
system covering only a portion of a building.
supply a certain amount of water pressure
Signage at the FDC indicating such partial
to the FDC to augment the system. For
protection alerts responding firefighters
example, standard procedure could be
to this, so they may factor it into their risk
to pump sprinkler systems at 125 psi,
analysis (figure 10.16). Signage should
and standpipe systems at 150 psi. This
provide enough detail so that firefighters
is adjusted as necessary for other floor
connecting the hose lines can identify the
levels or to account for different hose line
proper connection and extent of coverage.
configurations on standpipe systems. System
demand signs can eliminate some of this
estimating for pump operators and signs
for special systems can also indicate tactical
considerations (figure 10.15). Any additional
wording to assist pumper operators can help
supplement the basic standard procedures
with the specific needs of each building.
Figure 10.16. An FDC sign showing
partial system coverage.
Signage is also warranted for systems that
are not interconnected — to clearly indicate
which FDC feeds which system(s). This
can occur for the reasons discussed in this
chapter’s Quantity section above or where
Figure 10.15. A foam-water sprinkler system
high-rise buildings are tall enough to need
FDC sign with a cautionary statement
regarding the use of water.
separate vertical zones. The latter should
indicate the specific floors covered rather
Additional FDC signage is warranted for
than simply indicating “high” or “low” zones.
underground buildings such as transit
Signage assists firefighters when it is unclear
system facilities. This is because the visual
cues that a pump operator typically has
which FDC corresponds to which building.
This can occur when free-standing FDCs
on aboveground buildings (such as size
or height), are absent. Also, smoke or fire
are located far from the buildings they
feed. Signage also helps when FDCs feed a
venting provides no indication about the
subsurface level where the fire is located. In
building with several addresses.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
75
Questions to Ask - Fire Department Connections
■■
How many FDCs should be provided?
■■
Should multiple FDCs be interconnected?
■■
Should multiple FDCs be located remotely from one another?
■■
What type of inlet connection and thread type will match the fire service hose?
■■
How many inlets are needed for each FDC, based on the system demand?
■■
Are inlet caps or plugs provided? Must they be lockable?
■■
Where should FDCs be located for quick access by the fire service?
■■
How close must FDCs be to a fire hydrant or other water supply?
■■
Have fixed, temporary, and transient obstructions been considered?
■■
Are FDCs located away from wall openings or hazardous materials/processes?
■■
At what height above finished grade should FDCs be mounted?
■■
Will charged hose lines feeding FDCs not block exits or entrances?
■■
Are FDCs positioned or protected to avoid vehicle damage?
■■
Are FDC locations clearly marked with signs and/or lights?
■■
Does each FDC clearly show the type of system it feeds?
■■
Will signage be needed for design details? Partial coverage? Underground facilities?
To indicate building(s) covered?
Resources
■■
IFC
■■
NFPA 1
■■
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
■■
NFPA 13D, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family
Dwellings and Manufactured Homes
■■
NFPA 13E, Recommended Practice for Fire Department Operations in Properties
Protected by Sprinkler and Standpipe Systems
■■
NFPA 13R, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Low-Rise Residential
Occupancies
■■
NFPA 14, Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems
■■
OSHA Standard Automatic Sprinkler Systems, 29 CFR 1910.159
■■
NFPA 170, Standard for Fire Safety and Emergency Symbols
■■
NFPA 1963, Standard for Fire Hose Connections
76
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
level in tanks, and improper air pressure on
CHAPTER 11
dry suppression systems. When an input
FIRE ALARM AND
signal is received from an initiating device,
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
the control components (figure 11.1) will
trigger pre-determined outputs.
Fire alarm systems have traditionally been
used in buildings to alert occupants. Modern
systems are able to perform this alerting
function and much more. Properly designed,
approved, and installed fire alarm systems
may accomplish one or more of the following:
■■
Warn or inform building occupants of
abnormal or harmful conditions (after which
they should take appropriate action — which
may be sheltering in place, relocating to a
refuge area, or evacuating)
■■
Summon assistance from appropriate
entities (such as the fire service,
building fire wardens, staff responders,
maintenance personnel, etc.)
Figure 11.1. A basic fire alarm control panel
■■
Control auxiliary building fire safety
with its door open, showing the wiring and the
batteries for backup power. The controls and
devices and other systems to enhance life
indicator lights in the center are visible when the
safety (related to elevators, air handling
panel door is closed and locked.
units, egress door locks, fire doors, fire
dampers, etc.)
Output functions include activating audible and
■■ Provide intelligence to responding
visual occupant notification devices sending
firefighters regarding the occupants,
a signal to the fire service or other authorities,
the fire location, smoke movement, and
displaying the location and type of the alarm
the status of the installed fire protection
or supervisory signal, and performing auxiliary
systems and devices.
building fire safety functions. Examples
of auxiliary functions are elevator recall,
All the above functions are related to fire
ventilation system shutdown, smoke control
service operations during emergency
activation, fire door or damper closure, and
incidents. Firefighters can operate more
stair door unlocking. Outputs also include
efficiently and safely when occupants are
trouble or supervisory signals that typically
given clear direction, the correct location of
notify maintenance personnel or others
the emergency is reported, staff take proper
responsible for correcting abnormal conditions.
actions, the building and its components
react properly, and firefighters are given clear
Before any signals are received, fire alarm
and concise information.
systems should be in an operationally-ready
mode known as normal status. Upon receipt
To accomplish its function(s), fire alarm
of a signal, the system condition will change
systems monitor alarm-initiating devices
to one of the following status conditions:
such as manual pull stations, automatic
detectors, or water flow indicators. Systems
■■ Alarm: An emergency condition that
can also monitor non-emergency supervisory
usually results in the activation of
conditions such as wiring integrity, control
occupant notification devices and can also
valve position, fire pump status, low water
notify the fire service.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
77
■■
Supervisory: A non-emergency condition
notification devices for the visually-impaired
that indicates a device or feature is not in
and lower mounting height of manual stations
an operationally-ready mode.
for the mobility-impaired.
■■
Trouble: A non-emergency condition
This chapter covers fire service interaction
that indicates a device or feature has a
fault that may prevent one or more of the
with fire alarm systems and provides
guidance to facilitate firefighters’ operational
system’s intended functions.
efficiency. It is critical for fire alarm designers
Systems vary widely in complexity. A basic,
to confer with sprinkler and standpipe system
fundamental system consists of a control
designers; these systems are covered in
panel, initiating devices, and notification
Chapters 8 and 9, respectively. Elevator and
devices that transmit a general alarm
smoke control systems, which are often
throughout a building. On the other end of the
interfaced with fire alarm systems, are
spectrum are complex selective or phased
addressed in Chapters 6 and 12, respectively.
voice evacuation systems with integrated fire
For systems to be effective they should be
department communications systems.
regularly inspected, tested, and maintained;
impairment programs and maintenance are
Fire alarm technology has evolved, and will
covered in Chapter 13.
likely continue to evolve, at a rapid pace.
However, many systems continue to function
Zoning and Annunciation
with older technology. As a result, designers,
code officials, and emergency responders
An annunciator panel — also called a zoning
have to be familiar with various generations of
indicator panel — displays information about
technology — including systems that are hard-
the location and type of alarm. This assists
wired, multiplex, addressable, and wireless.
firefighters with their initial response and
may help them track the spread of smoke
Building codes, fire codes, life safety codes,
or heat. The annunciated information can
and owner criteria specify when to provide
be displayed on the alarm system control
fire alarm systems. The code is usually
panel for basic systems; otherwise a separate
a model code adopted by a jurisdiction,
annunciator panel is provided (figure 11.2).
sometimes with local amendments. The
trigger to require a fire alarm system is
usually building size, occupancy type, and/
or occupant load. In addition, certain OSHA
standards mandate employee alarm systems.
The installation standard for fire alarm
systems is NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code.
This code, along with the fire alarm wiring
portion of NFPA 70, the National Electrical
Code, contains comprehensive requirements
for design, installation, and maintenance of
fire alarm and detection systems. OSHA’s
Figure 11.2. A close-up photo of a portion of an
Employee Alarm System standard and
annunciator panel. The red lights indicate a smoke
Fire Detection Systems standard address
detector is in alarm mode in zone 3 on the 6th floor.
several specific aspects of these systems.
The Americans with Disabilities Act (1990,
A building may have multiple annunciators
amended 2009) prompted changes to fire
to serve multiple entrances. Or, there may be
alarm systems such as the addition of visual
different annunciators for different users —
78
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
such as the fire service, the security force, and
■■
Graphic — diagram showing floor
building management. This manual focuses on
layout(s), alarm information, and building
annunciator features applicable to fire service
information
use. Designers and code officials should always
■■
Computer workstation — with graphic
consult fire service response personnel on the
floor plan software package
design and location of these panels.
The location of an annunciator is critical to
enable emergency responders to quickly
determine the origin of the alarm and the
status of related equipment. Typically, the
best location is at the entrance where the
fire service plans to initially respond. Keep in
mind that this primary fire service entrance
may not be the primary occupant or visitor
entrance. Consultation with emergency
responders is the only way to obtain this
important piece of information.
In some large buildings, it may be beneficial
Figure 11.3 A textual-style annunciator panel
to have duplicate annunciators at different
with a touch-screen display.
locations. In buildings with a fire command
Directory and textual annunciators are often
center, an annunciator would be located within
supplemented with graphic diagrams. These
this room. However, depending on the room’s
diagrams and graphic annunciators are
accessibility, an additional annunciator may be
discussed in the following section. In simple
appropriate at another entrance.
systems where the control panel serves as
Each building should have its own
the annunciator, its location and features
annunciator, even if a single fire alarm
should meet all annunciator requirements.
control system serves multiple buildings.
In buildings without a fire command center,
Fire service operations would be delayed
if it were necessary for the initially-
the annunciator panel may store schematic
building plans (see the Fire Command
responding unit to report to a given building
to check the annunciator, then relocate
Centers section of this chapter and the
Interior Access section of Chapter 6) to
(or direct another unit) to investigate
origination of the alarm. In large complexes,
make them easily accessible to firefighters.
Advance planning would ensure that the
an additional master annunciator could
assist the fire service in locating the
size of the panel accommodates this. A
note outside the panel can indicate that it
building where an alarm originates.
contains building plans or diagrams.
Annunciators display information about
All annunciators show at least the type of
signals in different ways:
alarm initiating device and the floor level
■■
Directory — lamps or LEDs that are
where the alarm signal originated. Floor
labeled with a description (figure 11.2)
level designations must be consistent with
■■
Textual (also called liquid crystal display
stairs, elevators, and building directories to
(LCD) or alphanumeric) — static or running
avoid confusion.
display that describes the signal (figure 11.3)
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
79
The larger a floor is, the longer time it will
■■
Carbon monoxide detectors
take firefighters to search for the alarm
■■
Dry chemical extinguishing systems
origination. Extended search times may
■■
Wet chemical extinguishing systems
translate into delayed fire suppression and
(typically protecting cooking equipment)
longer times that the affected building will
■■
Clean agent systems
be evacuated or non-functional. Accordingly,
■■
Carbon dioxide or other gaseous systems
large floors are typically split into two or
❍❍
Note: where zone sprinkler flow
more zones. These zones are normally limited
devices are provided to activate an
to a maximum area as well as a maximum
alarm signal, any main or standpipe
linear dimension.
water flow indicators may be arranged
to sound a supervisory signal, since
Zone descriptors, whether they are labels
they are effectively only monitoring
next to lights or textual displays, should
the main feed or standpipe piping for
provide pertinent information to fire
breakage.
service personnel. Descriptors should
be intuitive and rapidly decipherable to
Smoke and heat detectors should be further
anyone unfamiliar with the building. For
identified on the annunciator by mounting
example, “pull station, dining exit” may be
location:
less intuitive than “pull station, northwest
■■
Open area (ceiling)
exit”, depending on the level of detail on
■■
Underfloor
the graphic diagram (see following section).
■■
Duct
Coded descriptors, such as WE-776, are
■■
Air plenum
meaningless to emergency responders. As
■■
Elevator lobby
the building, layout, tenants, or room names
■■
Elevator machine room or machinery space
change, descriptors must be updated.
■■
Elevator hoistway
Flow switches or pressure switches indicate
■■
Stair shaft
water flow. To direct firefighters to the
Supervisory devices indicate abnormal
appropriate area, it is important that the flow
conditions. They signal a need for non-
zone descriptor show the area covered by
emergency action, such as maintenance
the sprinkler system because that is where
or repair, and they should not cause an
firefighters will find the flowing sprinkler(s).
evacuation alarm or notify the fire service.
The location of the switch itself is not
Examples include:
important during an emergency incident.
■■
Valve tamper switch (closed or partially
Alarm devices indicate a situation requiring
closed water supply control valve)
emergency action and normally activate
■■
Dry sprinkler high or low air pressure
evacuation signals. Examples include:
switch
■■
Pre-action sprinkler low air pressure
■■
Manual pull stations (also called pull
switch
stations or pull boxes)
■■
Water tank low temperature or low water
■■
Sprinkler flow detectors
level indicator
■■
Smoke detector (spot type or air-sampling
■■
Valve room low air temperature indicator
type)
■■
Heat detectors
Some devices control certain building
■■
Flame detectors
features, such as elevators, fans, doors, or
■■
Optical detectors
80
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
dampers. They may be shown as alarm or
Graphic Displays
supervisory, depending on the preference of
Simple annunciators for small buildings will
the code official or emergency responders.
typically show alarm location in terms of
Examples include:
floor levels only. If more specific location-
related information is indicated, a graphic
■■
Duct smoke detectors
diagram will enable firefighters to quickly find
■■
Air plenum smoke detectors
the source of the alarm. Examples of this type
■■
Underfloor detectors
of information are zone boundaries, room
■■
Door closure smoke detectors
names, and room numbers. When an alarm
■■
Elevator hoistway smoke or heat detectors
originates from locations with designations
■■
Elevator machine room or machinery
such as “Zone 2 East,” “Suite 121,” or “Main
space smoke or heat detectors
Electric Room”, a diagram will help pinpoint
■■
Stair smoke detectors
those areas or their boundary.
❍❍
Note: devices subject to frequent
unwanted alarms (primarily smoke
The graphic display may be a separate,
detectors in air ducts, air plenums, and
printed diagram mounted on the wall
elevator hoistways) are often arranged
adjacent to the annunciator (figure 11.4).
to activate a supervisory signal, since
The diagram may be integrated with the
their main purpose is mechanical
annunciator, in which case it is called a
control rather than initiating occupant
“graphic annunciator” (figure 11.5). Some
evacuation.
jurisdictions may require annunciators to be
Status indicators give information about the
graphic type in certain situations.
condition of devices external to the alarm
system. Examples include:
■■
Main system power on
■■
Main system trouble
■■
Fire pump running
■■
Fire pump fault
■■
Fire pump phase reversal
■■
Generator run
■■
Generator fault
■■
Stair doors unlocked
■■
Smoke control system in operation
■■
Elevator floor status
Controls and monitors for ancillary functions
are routinely included on alarm panels or
annunciators. These include:
■■
Fire pump start switches and indicators
■■
Generator start switches and indicators
■■
Egress or stair door unlocking switches
■■
Smoke control or smoke ventilation switches
Figure 11.4. A graphic diagram in a frame.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
81
Figure 11.5. A diagram of a well-designed graphic annunciator, with clearly organized and
labeled lamps, as well as building features to assist the fire service.
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
The design of the diagram is very important
■■
Stairs, their identification, and the floors
to enable firefighters to rapidly obtain
they serve
needed information. Fire services may
■■
Elevators, their identification, and the
have regulations or policies outlining their
floors they serve
requirements or preferences. Some code
■■
Elevator machine rooms
officials or emergency responders require
■■
Exterior entrances
annunciators throughout their jurisdiction to
■■
Security, management, and
have standardized features.
maintenance offices
■■
Standpipe locations
Proper orientation of the floor plans on the
■■
Standpipe riser isolation valves
diagram will help firefighters to visually
■■
Sprinkler zone control valves
process the information it contains. When
■■
Main water and sprinkler control valves
viewing the annunciator, the farthest point of
■■
Location of utility controls (electric,
the building beyond the annunciator’s location
gas, fuel)
should be at the top of the diagram. A “You
■■
Fire alarm control panel
Are Here” indicator on the floor plan shows
■■
Standby generator
the viewers where they are in the building.
■■
Fire pumps
■■
Fire department connections
Within the building’s outline, zones are
■■
Laundry rooms
identified by the boundary lines between
■■
Trash or linen chutes
them. Likewise, for alarms designated
■■
Swimming pools
by room, suite, or tenant, these specific
locations are shown.
Designers and code officials should
remember that modifications to the building
Often, sprinkler zones are allowed to be larger
or its layout may require changes to the
than zones for other alarm-initiating devices.
graphic diagram. An annunciator with
This is because a flowing sprinkler is much
inaccurate information could be worse than
easier to find than an activated heat or smoke
no annunciator at all.
detector. Careful coordination is important
in this scenario to avoid confusion. If the
Engraved type graphic annunciators can be
sprinkler zone boundaries do not track along
expensive to keep updated. Depending on the
the other alarm zone boundaries, separate
expected changes in a given building, it may
diagrams would be necessary for each.
be more appropriate and cost-effective to use
an electronic annunciator that is much easier
In addition to information about floors, zones,
to revise. Technology is available to enable
and devices, many features of the building
electronic annunciators to transmit their
could be shown on the diagram. These
information directly to fire service apparatus
include fire protection systems, building
via wireless communication.
areas, and site features that the fire service
needs to be aware of, including the following:
Fire Service Notification
■■
Building address
Building or fire codes may require fire
■■
North direction arrow
alarm systems to automatically alert the
■■
“You Are Here” indicator
responsible fire department, fire brigade, or
■■
Nearby streets, especially if the building
other emergency response agency. Often an
abuts more than one street
alarm service or off-site location will receive
■■
Adjacent buildings
the alarm signal and then retransmit it to
■■
Private fire apparatus access lanes
the response agency. Whether required or
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
83
optional, automatic fire service notification
Another feature to assist firefighters in
often results in the fastest response and
multi-tenant buildings is supplemental
therefore the best opportunity to affect
tenant information signs (figure 11.7). These
rescues and limit property damage.
show a diagram of the overall building, the
specific tenant location, a “You Are Here”
Reporting of the proper location is vital for
indicator, and the location of other features
responders. Fire alarm designers and code
such as the exterior entrances, the fire alarm
officials should consult emergency response
control panel, the annunciator, and the fire
personnel to determine how automatic
department connection.
alarms are to be reported. Considerations
may include pre-incident plans, familiarity
with the site, likely response direction, and
location of hazardous materials.
It is crucial that the address reported to the fire
service match the address where the alarm
originated. If a building has multiple addresses,
the one with the fire alarm annunciator or
fire command center should be reported. If
a building includes separate, independent
annunciators, coordinate the remote signal
with the correct annunciator location.
Larger buildings with multiple entrances for
different sections, wings, or tenants can be
confusing. If possible, remote fire service
Figure 11.7. A supplemental tenant
notification should include information on
fire alarm information sign.
the section, wing, or tenant from which
the alarm originates. This will help initially
Unwanted Alarms
responding units to position properly. If
An unwanted alarm is an alarm condition
the reporting system does not have this
that does not result from a hazardous or
capability, another approach could be strobe
emergency condition. These cause the
lights at entrances corresponding to the
fire service to respond unnecessarily and
alarm origination (figure 11.6).
desensitize occupants to alarm signals.
Malicious alarms result from intentional acts.
Unintentional (often called “good intent”)
alarms occur when a person mistakenly
believes a hazardous or emergency
condition exists. Nuisance alarms are
system responses to conditions that are not
hazardous or emergency in nature. Unwanted
alarms can also result from unknown or
unidentified conditions. All efforts designers
and code officials make to prevent any type
Figure 11.6. This building has multiple tenants
of unwanted alarms will keep fire service
with different addresses fronting on two streets.
responses to a minimum, thereby decreasing
Strobes outside each exterior tenant entry door
hazards to firefighters and keeping them
indicate the tenant where an alarm originates.
available for actual emergency incidents.
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Locating manual pull stations at the high
Some smoke detectors have an adjustable
point of the allowable height range will help
sensitivity feature that can help prevent
keep small children away from them. Covers
unwanted alarms. Sensitivity should be set
are also available (figure 11.8) that will sound
very low for areas such as mechanical spaces
a local alarm when raised to activate the
and low for corridors and elevator lobbies.
pull station. These should reduce malicious
Sensitivity can be set high in rooms where
alarms and are often used in schools, stores,
the climate is highly controlled, especially
and malls.
if they contain high-value contents such as
computer rooms.
Security alarm systems that emit smoke to
confuse criminals can present a dangerous
situation for firefighters. They can prompt
false calls to the fire service, followed by
the possibility of firefighters encountering
criminal activity. Fire codes typically prohibit
such systems. Where allowed, careful
coordination with emergency responders
would be important for their safety.
Many unwanted alarms can be traced to
inadequate alarm system maintenance.
Some jurisdictions assess fines for multiple
Figure 11.8. A manual pull station cover.
responses to unwanted alarms. See Chapter
Improperly located smoke detectors and
13 for system maintenance and impairment
smoke alarms will be subject to nuisance
programs.
alarms. Locations likely to cause problems
include those close to kitchens, air diffusers,
Occupant Notification
and fans, as well as within elevator hoistways.
The main purpose of notifying occupants
Also, these devices are not designed for
of a fire or other emergency is to facilitate
exterior use (figure 11.9). In such locations
their appropriate reaction. The notification
where automatic detection is required, heat
is often both audible and visual — the latter
detectors are often substituted.
for occupants with hearing impairments. To
successfully mitigate an incident, responding
firefighters must coordinate their strategy
with the actions of the occupants, provide
them clear direction, and update them as the
incident progresses.
Firefighters may need quick access to a fire
alarm panel — to either activate or silence
the occupant notification signals. Rooms or
closets containing fire alarm panels should
be provided with signage (figure 11.10).
Figure 11.9. A smoke detector mounted in an
outdoor location (an open parking garage).
Directional signs could also be provided to
show the direction to such rooms from the
entry point.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
85
announcements to any or all evacuation
zones with a microphone at the command
center. Visual indicators typically show which
evacuation zones are activated at any given
time (figure 11.11).
Figure 11.10 A sign on a door to a room
containing fire alarm control panels (FACP).
Voice type alarm systems can greatly assist
in the important communication between
responders and occupants, but only if they
are arranged to provide clear direction
based on the desired egress scenario.
Possible scenarios include full evacuation,
partial evacuation, sheltering in place,
relocation to refuge areas, or a combination
of these. Occupant notification and the
Figure 11.11. A voice alarm system panel with
egress scenarios must also be coordinated
the door open. The microphone for live voice
with the door locking scheme, especially
announcements is to the right of the red handset.
those doors in stairs.
The manual select switches and indicators for
the different evacuation zones are shown. The
Voice alarm systems automatically send a voice
red telephone handset is for the fire department
evacuation message to speakers — often only
communication system (see the following section)
in selected areas of large or tall buildings. This
that is integrated with this panel.
selective evacuation is typical where general
The arrangement of selective evacuation
(total) evacuation is impractical, at least initially.
notification zones depends upon the design
Examples of such buildings are high-rises,
of the building, its egress scenario, and its
hospitals, and large assembly occupancies.
evacuation plan. Each floor level is typically
The voice messages can be pre-recorded or
one notification zone when the floors provide
live (by properly-trained building staff).
a complete fire-rated barrier. Each floor space
A typical high-rise selective evacuation
divided by fire or smoke barriers to enable
scenario would automatically send a pre-
occupants to take refuge on either side would
recorded message to the floor where the
be provided with multiple notification zones.
alarm originates and the adjacent floors
Boundaries of those zones within a given
above and below it. Another high-rise
floor must coincide with those barriers.
scenario could direct occupants to move to
Conversely, floors that are physically open
a designated refuge area or to another floor
to one another should be arranged as a
several floors below the incident.
single notification zone. Occupants of these
Arriving firefighters can evacuate additional
floors can be exposed to the same heat
areas in a phased manner by manually
and smoke conditions. Also, the single
activating one, several, or all floors with the
notification zone avoids the confusion
manual-select switches in the command
possible when occupants in portions of the
center. They can also override the pre-
space hear an evacuation signal, but cannot
recorded message and broadcast live voice
clearly decipher it. A common example of
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
this situation is a series of parking garage
plan is important. The entire atrium will likely
levels connected by open ramps (figure
comprise one occupant notification zone. It may
11.12). Such interconnected levels are often
be desirable to activate only the atrium zone
arranged as a single notification zone for
upon receipt of an alarm signal from within
the “floor, floor above, and floor below”
the atrium, and not from alarm signals in other
selective evacuation scenario.
areas. Designers should consider the audibility
and legibility of signals in areas adjacent to the
atrium to minimize occupant confusion.
Fire Department
Communication Systems
Fire department communication systems are
two-way telephone systems typically found
in high-rise buildings. The system’s control
unit has a main handset for use by the fire
service commanders (figure 11.13) and is
usually located in the fire command center
Figure 11.12. This high-rise building has three
(see the following section). Either handsets
garage levels interconnected by open vehicle
or jacks for handsets (figure 11.14) are then
ramps. Those three levels have a single occupant
placed in areas of the building for firefighters
notification zone.
to communicate with the command center.
Speakers are often omitted from stairs, exit
passageways, and elevator cabs because
occupants either spend little time in these
areas, are already exiting, or will encounter
others exiting. Speakers in such areas can
also cause confusion because they may be
heard in many other areas, including those
where occupants should be remaining
in place. A third issue with any alarm
notification device in stairs is the negative
impact on communication among firefighters
Figure 11.13. A fire officer speaking into the main
using the stair for entry and staging.
handset at the control panel for a fire department
communication system. This panel also houses
However, in some special circumstances, such
the portable handsets used by firefighters at
remote jacks.
as very tall buildings where occupants may be
in exit stairs or exit passageways for extended
time frames, speakers may be provided in
such areas. Speakers in each such area should
be arranged as a single notification zone
with manual-only selection capability for the
responders staffing the fire command center.
For similar reasons, atriums and other
large open spaces spanning multiple floors
are challenging in buildings with selective
evacuation. Again, coordination with the
Figure 11.14. A firefighter training to use a
building’s egress scenario and evacuation
handset in a remote jack located inside a stair.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
87
If the system uses jacks, a number of portable
and controls such as stair unlocking, air
handsets with plugs are provided in the
handling systems, and emergency or
command center for distribution to firefighters.
standby power. Other helpful features
If handsets are provided at all remote locations,
are an outside phone line, area of refuge
portable handsets are not necessary.
emergency communication equipment, video
monitoring equipment, elevator emergency
Designers and code officials should plan
communication equipment, elevator status
for handsets or jacks in locations where
indicators, building information cards
firefighters are likely to be operating. Typical
(see the Building Information section of
locations include each level within exit stairs,
Chapter 7), hazardous materials information,
elevator cabs, elevator lobbies, elevator
emergency contacts, schematic building
machine rooms or machinery spaces, fire
plans, and a work table to facilitate
pump rooms, emergency or standby power
referencing these materials. Furthermore,
rooms, and areas of refuge.
code officials or emergency responders may
have requirements or preferences regarding
In some jurisdictions, particularly for
how the various panels are arranged within
new buildings, fire service radio signal
the center (figure 11.15).
enhancement systems (see Chapter 12) may
be preferred over, or allowed instead of,
fire department communication systems.
Firefighters are often much more comfortable
using the radios they regularly use rather than
a separate system they may not be familiar
with or confident using. Where radio signal
enhancement systems are not required, code
officials may consider an equivalency or
modification to allow them to substitute for
the fire department communication systems
discussed in this section.
Fire Command Centers
Figure 11.15. The inside of a fire command center.
High-rise buildings often have a dedicated
The schematic building plans in the fire
room or other location containing fire alarm
command center should not be detailed
and related fire protection and utility control
construction plans; rather, they should be
equipment. Building and fire codes mandate
simple firefighter-friendly plans showing
these for newer high-rises. NFPA 72 refers
features that will help firefighters determine
to them as Fire Command Centers; other
their strategy and tactics. These features
terms used include Central Control Station,
include the floor layouts, fire- and smoke-
Emergency Command Center, and Fire
rated walls, egress and access, fire service
Control Room. Fire command centers provide
elevator lobbies, and fire protection
a single location for all equipment that
equipment. These same plans should also be
incident commanders would need during an
provided to emergency responders for pre-
emergency incident.
incident planning.
Items in a fire command center vary by the
Fire command centers are usually separated
code(s) in effect. Equipment related to the
from other building areas by fire-rated
alarm, detection, water flow, annunciation,
construction. Many jurisdictions desire
smoke control, and communication systems
fire command centers to have an exterior
are included, as are related functions
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