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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Introduction
1
Purpose
1
Scope
2
Manual Organization and Use
3
Terminology
4
Glossary of Acronyms and Terms
4
Chapter 2 Fire Service Primer
5
Challenges
5
Organization
6
Apparatus
7
Emergency Operations
8
How Stakeholders Can Help
10
Chapter 3 Fire Apparatus Access
13
Extent and Number
13
Dimensions
14
Turnarounds
16
Design
16
Security
17
Traffic Calming Features
18
Chapter 4 Water Supply
20
Fire Flow
21
Fire Pumps
22
Fire Hydrant Features
23
Fire Hydrant Placement
24
Chapter 5 Premises Identification
29
Chapter 6 Firefighter Access
32
Site Access
32
Key Boxes
32
Entry Points
33
Room and Floor Designations
34
Interior Access
36
Stairs
36
Stair Capacity
37
Elevators
38
Utility and Equipment Identification
40
Chapter 7 Hazards to Firefighters
42
Building Information
42
Hazardous Materials
43
Lightweight Construction
44
Shaftways
46
Rooftop Hazards
47
Energy Conservation and Alternative Energy Features
47
Chapter 8 Sprinkler Systems
51
Zoning
51
Control Valves
52
Partial Sprinkler Systems
55
Unwanted Alarms
56
Chapter 9 Standpipe Systems
58
System Design
59
Pressure-Regulating Devices
61
Fire Hose Connections
62
Fire Attack from Stairs
65
Isolation Valves
67
Chapter 10 Fire Department Connections
69
Quantity
69
Inlets
70
Location
71
Position
73
Marking and Signage
74
Chapter 11 Fire Alarm and Communication Systems
77
Zoning and Annunciation
78
Graphic Displays
81
Fire Service Notification
83
Unwanted Alarms
84
Occupant Notification
85
Fire Department Communication Systems
87
Fire Command Centers
88
vi
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Chapter 12 Other Systems
91
Firefighter Radio Signal Enhancement Systems
91
Firefighter Air Replenishment Systems
92
Backup Power Systems
95
Firefighter Emergency Power Outlet Systems
96
Smoke Control and Ventilation Systems
96
Chapter 13 Building Phases
101
Concept and Design
101
Construction
103
Occupancy
107
Maintenance and Use
108
Demolition
110
ANNEX A Coordination Checklist
112
Workers’ Rights
114
OSHA Assistance, Services and Programs
114
NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Program
116
OSHA Regional Offices
117
How to Contact OSHA
118
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
vii
This manual is advisory in nature and
In addition, Section 5(a)(1) of the OSH Act, the
informational in content. It is not a standard
General Duty Clause, requires employers to
or a regulation, and it neither creates
provide their employees with a workplace free
new legal obligations nor alters existing
from recognized hazards likely to cause death
obligations created by OSHA standards or the
or serious physical harm. Employers can be
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act).
cited for violating the General Duty Clause if
there is such a recognized hazard, and they do
Employers are required to comply
not take reasonable steps to prevent or abate
with hazard-specific safety and health
the hazard. However, the failure to implement
standards as issued and enforced either
any of the recommendations in this manual
by the Occupational Safety and Health
is not, in itself, a violation of the General
Administration (OSHA) or by one of the 27
Duty Clause. Citations can only be based on
OSHA-approved State Plans. State Plans have
standards, regulations, or the General Duty
and enforce their own occupational safety
Clause.
and health standards that are required to be
at least as effective as OSHA’s, but may have
This manual does not supersede or substitute
different or additional requirements. A list
for any local or state laws, codes, ordinances,
of the State Plans and more information is
regulations, or amendments thereto. This
available at: www.osha.gov/dcsp/osp.
document shall only be used as a nonbinding
supplement to a jurisdiction’s requirements.
viii
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
on water supply and building phases and
CHAPTER 1
topics on energy conservation, emergency
INTRODUCTION
power, and room and floor numbering are
now included.
Purpose
The purpose of this manual is to increase
The combined efforts of designers, code
the safety of emergency responders and
officials, and related stakeholders can
building occupants by providing information
result in safer workplaces for firefighters.
about how firefighters typically interact
When designs are tailored to better meet
with building features and fire protection
emergency service operational needs, the
systems during fires (figure 1.1) and similar
time and complexity needed to mitigate an
emergencies. By better understanding the
incident is often reduced. Designers in this
needs of the fire service, designers and code
manual can include architects, engineers,
officials can work together to streamline fire
planners, and design technicians. Code
service emergency operations within the built
officials can include fire marshals, fire
environment.
inspectors, fire prevention officers, building
inspectors, and plan reviewers. Other
stakeholders include building owners and
developers, security professionals, and
construction professionals.
The faster the fire service can respond,
enter, locate the emergency incident, and
safely operate in or near a building, the
sooner they can usually resolve the incident
in a safe manner. This, in turn, will likely
increase the safety of building occupants
(workers, residents, and visitors), reduce
property damage, and limit related indirect
losses. Therefore, both building occupants
as well as fire service employees will realize
the benefits of this document in terms of
reasonably safe working conditions as
intended by the Occupational Safety and
Health Act of 1970.
The model building codes used in the United
Figure 1.1 Firefighters attacking
States — The International Building Code and
a building fire.
the National Fire Protection Association’s
(NFPA) 5000 — include firefighter safety
Originally published in 2006, this manual
within their scope. Designers and code
cited specific criteria for many of the building
officials therefore bear some responsibility
features discussed and code references. This
for the safety of firefighters dealing with
document avoids such specifics and instead
emergencies in buildings that these
provides a general discussion of each feature,
specialists design or approve, respectively.
followed by a series of questions to ask and a
Users of NFPA’s Life Safety Code should note
list of resources to help users answer them.
that firefighter safety is not specifically stated
Editions are not listed for the resources such
as part of its scope, which is one reason it
as codes and standards that are regularly
would not substitute for a building code.
updated. Two new chapters have been added
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
1
The building code responsibility for firefighter
affected jurisdiction. Designers should
protection applies equally to prescriptive
consider code officials and emergency
and performance-based design. However,
responders as stakeholders — just as they
a higher level of knowledge regarding fire
would building owners or occupants.
service operations would likely be needed
to meet this responsibility in a performance-
Scope
based design scenario. Only with a thorough
This publication is to be used voluntarily,
understanding of how the fire service interacts
as a companion to mandatory and advisory
with all building features and systems during
provisions in fire codes, building codes,
an emergency can a designer evaluate and
life safety codes, safety regulations, and
ensure the safety of firefighters.
standards for fire protection systems.
The material contained in this document
Many portions of the prescriptive codes
focuses on ways that stakeholders listed
and standards governing buildings and
above can contribute to the efficiency of
fire protection systems allow for design
operations during emergency incidents in
variations. The resulting flexibility permits
both new and existing structures. Proper
the selection of a variety of design options.
design and approval should be followed by
This manual discusses how the fire service
suitable installation, inspection, testing, and
interacts with different building features
maintenance.
to help designers select options that may
streamline fire service operations.
The material in this document is applicable
to all types of fire service organizations,
Designers routinely consider the needs and
including fire brigades and fire departments,
comfort of their clients when arranging a
and will help emergency responders at
building’s layout and systems. Within the
incidents other than fires — hazardous
framework of codes and standards, design
materials releases, emergency medical care,
options may be developed to benefit a
explosions, collapses, and entrapments.
particular owner, occupant, or user. For
example, a building code would typically
Users of this manual must understand its
dictate the minimum number of lavatories
limitations. It is intended to supplement rather
and water fountains. However, the location,
than substitute for codes and standards. For
distribution, and types of such facilities are
example, there are entire standards and books
left up to the designer in consultation with
written about sprinkler, standpipe, and fire
the client.
alarm design. However, this document covers
only the portions of those systems with which
The application of fire protection features in
the fire service interacts and suggests design
buildings is similar. For instance, a code may
choices that will help streamline and support
require the installation of a fire department
fire service operations.
connection for a sprinkler system or an
annunciator for a fire alarm system. However,
The concepts discussed here will apply
there may be little or no guidance as to
to most facilities but do not cover every
the location, position, features, or marking
possible type of building, facility, or hazard.
of such devices. This manual discusses
Therefore, designers and code officials
such features, lists questions to ask, and
should seek additional specific guidance from
provides resources to help answer these
code officials and emergency responders
questions. Primarily, these questions will be
regarding specialized facilities such as
addressed by local and state fire codes, the
tunnels, transit systems, underground
code officials administering these codes,
structures, and about the handling of highly
and emergency response personnel in the
hazardous chemicals.
2
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Manual Organization and Use
stakeholders should begin at an early stage
in the design process when changes are
Chapter 2 of this manual presents an
easier to make and are less costly.
introduction to the fire service which is
important for all users of this publication.
There are several ways for code officials and
The remaining chapters include a narrative
emergency responders to disseminate or
describing specific building features and
incorporate the information in this manual.
how the fire service uses or interacts with
Simply sharing the general information is a
them. Depending on a designer’s field of
great start. Developing a handout or doing
practice, one or more of these chapters may
a presentation based on this document
be applicable. Boxes at the end of each
that is specific to a particular jurisdiction,
chapter list specific questions that designers
with specific dimensions and other
and code officials should consider for each
criteria, is a more effective strategy. The
topic, followed by resources that may help
recommendations can also serve as a basis
answer those questions. The Annex section
for local code amendments which carry the
contains a checklist to facilitate coordination
force of law, in which case the provisions
with emergency responders on the topics
would need to be revised from advisory
addressed in this document.
language to enforceable mandatory language.
Readers should recognize that this manual
Codes and standards typically include
was developed during 2013-2015. Its contents
an equivalency clause that permits code
reflect the state of the art at that time. It is
officials to allow alternatives to strict
possible — in fact, likely — that building
compliance, as long as the prescribed level
features, materials, systems, and methods to
of safety is not diminished. In some cases,
assist the fire service will continue to change
a higher level of safety for firefighters
in the future. Technology will continue to
can be achieved through this process,
evolve. Material in this publication is not
and perhaps even at a lower cost. For
intended to discourage the use of the latest
example, when fire service radio signals
technology, provided that adequate data
are inadequate within an existing building,
demonstrates that it provides equivalent or
it may be determined that portable signal
superior protection for firefighters.
enhancement devices carried by fire service
vehicles are both more effective and less
Along with the general considerations
costly than enhancing the building’s radio
contained in this manual, designers
signal infrastructure. Equivalent alternatives
and code officials should seek out and
and their justification should be documented
follow the specific advice of emergency
so that this key information needed for safe
responders. In some cases, the fire service
and effective response is maintained for the
will have statutory code enforcement
life of the building.
authority to take part in the plan review,
permit process, and inspections of these
Terminology
facilities or to approve some features of
the building or site. Whether or not the fire
The terminology used in this manual is as
service is involved in the code enforcement
generic as possible, based primarily on
process, designers and code officials
the codes and standards of the National
can only obtain all pertinent information
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) and the
if they consult appropriate response
International Code Council (ICC). For example,
personnel. Consultation among appropriate
the term code official is used to mean any of
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
3
the following: authority having jurisdiction
Glossary of Acronyms and Terms
(an NFPA term), building code official, or fire
The following terms are used in multiple
code official (both ICC terms).
chapters of this manual.
Fire service terms vary depending on
Apparatus: fire service
High-rise building:
where you are in the U.S. For example, this
vehicle.
qualitatively used in this
document uses the term aerial apparatus
manual as a building
to describe a fire service vehicle with an
Apparatus, aerial:
with one or more floors
vehicle that carries a
above the reach of fire
extendable ladder or articulating boom
fixed extendable ladder
service ladders. Many
mounted on top. Common terms for this
and portable ladders.
codes and standards
same type of vehicle include truck, ladder,
use a more quantitative
aerial, ladder truck, tower, or tower ladder.
Apparatus, pumper:
definition.
vehicle that carries hose,
Some of these terms indicate specific types
a pump, and a water
Hose line, pre-connected:
of aerial fire apparatus. In some regions, the
tank.
a hose of fixed length
term truck refers only to aerial apparatus,
with a nozzle attached and
Code Official: a person
connected to a discharge
while in other areas this term could also
legally designated
outlet on a pumper.
include pumper apparatus. The term tanker
to enforce a building
means a road vehicle in some areas and a
code, a fire code, or
IBC: International
water-dropping aircraft in others.
a life safety code in a
Building Code.
particular jurisdiction.
ICC: International
In another example of potentially confusing
Designer: a person
Code Council.
terminology, fire apparatus drivers in
involved in one or
different regions may be referred to as
more facets of creating
IFC: International
driver/operators, chauffeurs, or engineers.
the built environment,
Fire Code.
including architects,
To those in the building design community,
engineers, planners, and
Ladder company:
the term engineer means a person who
design technicians.
aerial apparatus and
does building design. Understanding local
personnel.
Emergency responder:
terminology variations is important to avoid
a person designated
NFPA: National Fire
misunderstandings.
to respond to mitigate
Protection Association.
structural fires or similar
emergencies, including
NFPA 1: Fire Code.
firefighters, HAZMAT
technicians, and rescue
NFPA 101: Life
technicians.
Safety Code.
Engine company:
NFPA 5000: Building
pumper apparatus and
Construction and
personnel.
Safety Code.
First due unit: engine
Pre-incident plan:
company or truck
a compilation of
company designated
information and
to respond first to an
diagrams on a specific
incident at a given
facility to facilitate
location.
emergency operations.
HAZMAT: Hazardous
Truck company:
materials.
aerial apparatus and
personnel.
4
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Risk assessment must be done in a dynamic
CHAPTER 2
manner. The need to carry out inherently
FIRE SERVICE PRIMER
risky fire suppression and rescue tasks
must be balanced with the need to maintain
Challenges
firefighters’ safety. In these situations,
Fire service operations take place in
pertinent information, building protective
dangerous, time-sensitive environments
features, and protection systems help make
(figure 2.1). A slight delay in operations,
for a more favorable work environment
especially when the first fire apparatus are
for firefighters, along with proper strategy,
arriving and positioning, can adversely affect
tactics, and protective equipment.
subsequent operations and the outcome of
the incident. Delays caused by poorly located
Information is frequently limited during
fire hydrants, confusing fire alarm system
emergency operations. This can impact
information, ineffective communication
initial decisions, which in turn can affect
systems, or inaccessible equipment can
the incident duration and outcome (figure
have a ripple effect on other aspects of the
2.2). However, decisions must be made very
operation. During these delays, the fire will
quickly, despite the unknown factors at an
likely grow exponentially, expanding the
emergency scene. These factors, many of
hazard for both occupants and firefighters.
which can be critical, include the incident
origin location(s), what materials are involved
or exposed, how long the incident has
progressed, what directions the hazard is
spreading, where the occupants are located,
building construction features, and installed
protection systems.
Firefighters arriving at an incident scene
often see no exterior indications of fire or
smoke. This occurs more frequently in newer
structures that are tightly encapsulated due
Figure 2.1. Trapped firefighters being
to modern construction techniques, stricter
rescued from a building.
energy codes, and environmental features
(improved weatherproofing, inoperable
Fire service operations are performed at all
windows, etc.).
times of the day or night, in any weather
conditions, and frequently in unfamiliar
environments. The work is mentally stressful,
and physically exhausting. Crew variations
(due to time off, transfers, replacements,
other emergency responses, etc.) introduce
additional challenges.
Firefighters’ workplaces are the buildings
and areas in which they deal with emergency
incidents. So, they have an unlimited variety
of workplaces. Without knowing the location
Figure 2.2. The initial hose line placement
or circumstances of the next incident,
can determine the course of an incident.
traditional risk assessments for worker
safety cannot be effectively undertaken.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
5
Even when smoke and fire is showing from the
■■
Alternative energy technology including
exterior, little is immediately known about the
photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles,
occupants or interior conditions. Emergency
battery storage, fuel cells, wind turbines,
scenes are often chaotic. Information given to
and smart grids
firefighters is frequently limited, erroneous,
All of the above challenges may further
or conflicting. Firefighters are trained to act
jeopardize the safety of firefighters.
quickly to save lives and property that are in
Simplifying the firefighter’s job in small ways
imminent danger. Furthermore, conditions
will increase the level of safety for them, and
can change drastically during the time it takes
for building occupants. Design features that
firefighters to set up their equipment to attack
save time or personnel can help firefighters
the fire. The abilities to adapt, improvise,
operate in a safer manner and mitigate
and foresee fire progress are key skills for
incidents more quickly. Any feature that
successful firefighters and fire officers.
provides additional information regarding the
All of these challenges are magnified in
fire, the building, or its occupants can assist
firefighters, as would any ways to speed the
high-rises, underground structures, and
other large or complex buildings (figure 2.3).
delivery of this information.
Many portions of these buildings are beyond
the reach of ladders, making exterior access
impossible and limiting firefighting and rescue
operations to the interior. Firefighter escape
options are also limited to internal routes.
Greater time, resources, physical endurance,
and dependence on elevators are required.
Several crews are often needed to accomplish
tasks that normally could be accomplished by
one or a few firefighters — for example, an air
bottle exchange and replenishment operation.
A great deal of support may be necessary for
basic tasks such as setting up a hose line or
rescuing a trapped victim.
Trends in building construction material and
Figure 2.3. Firefighters entering
contents have changed working conditions
an occupied residential high-rise building to
perform an interior attack (smoke and fire is
for firefighters. The Federal Emergency
showing from an upper floor window).
Management Agency (FEMA) has identified
In addition to heavy protective gear
the following trends that have increased the
and breathing apparatus, they are carrying
complexity and uncertainty of fighting fires.
hose, extra air tanks, and other equipment.
Chapter 7 contains a detailed discussion of
several of these features.
Organization
■■
Lightweight construction
Fire service organizations can be classified as
■■
Synthetic furnishings
career, volunteer, or a combination of both.
■■
Residential transformations including
Career personnel are paid for their work,
reduced lot sizes, open floor plans, and
while volunteer members are either unpaid
larger concealed spaces
or compensated in non-monetary ways.
■■
Energy conservation measures including
Combination organizations have both career
insulation, windows, doors, and rooftop
and volunteer staff. Career organizations
gardens
typically serve larger, more urban, or industrial
6
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
settings, although many smaller cities or
understanding of the main types of apparatus
towns have a full or partial career staff.
will help designers understand some of the
Volunteer organizations are usually found in
considerations for access and other features.
more suburban or rural settings, although
A pumper type of apparatus carries hose, a
some serve densely populated areas and have
very high emergency response rates. Some
pump, and a water tank. Together with its
personnel, this is called an engine company.
areas utilize call firefighters, who are paid per
response or hourly.
Their main responsibility is to deliver water
to the fire. Initially, the engine company may
Perhaps a more important way to categorize
operate using the water available in their
fire service organizations is by whether fire
tank; however, any incidents other than
stations are staffed with personnel ready to
small exterior fires will typically require a
respond. Most career personnel remain in
continuous water supply. This is done when
their station while on duty. Call firefighters do
hose lines carry water from a source of supply
not remain in their station awaiting emergency
(fire hydrant, lake, pond, temporary basin)
calls. Most volunteers respond from home or
to the on-board pump, which then boosts
work when they are alerted to an emergency.
the pressure to hose lines or other devices
However, some organizations have volunteer
attacking the fire. Pumpers are typically
personnel staffing their stations on shifts or
equipped with a large-capacity nozzle,
living in the stations. The types of firefighters
commonly referred to as a master stream
and mechanism of response are often driven
device or deck gun, that can flow a large
by the community’s call volume, budget, and
amount of water and is mounted on the top of
the dedication and determination of its fire
the apparatus. Additionally, pumpers usually
service members.
carry one or two short portable ladders.
Another type of fire service organization
Fire hoses are manufactured in various
is the industrial fire brigade. This is an
lengths (typically 50, 75, or 100 ft.) which
organized group of employees trained and
must be coupled together to form hose lines.
equipped to provide emergency services
Pumpers carry hose lines of various diameter
for one or several specific employers. A fire
and lengths (formed with several sections).
brigade can provide a full range of services
Some are used to supply water to the
(similar to a municipal fire department)
pumper from a water source as discussed in
or specific services such as initial fire
Chapter 4. Other hose lines are used to attack
suppression, hazardous materials mitigation,
fires (figure 2.4) and are usually smaller in
or emergency medical care. Members
diameter than supply hose lines.
may be dedicated full-time to emergency
operations or emergency response may be
a part-time, collateral duty. The part-time
members leave their primary jobs to respond.
Apparatus
The fire service response to a structure
fire would normally involve a number of
different units, also called companies.
Fire service vehicles are called apparatus;
one vehicle is sometimes referred to as a
Figure 2.4. A pumper operating at an incident.
piece of apparatus. They come in a wide
The red hose is supplying water from a
variety of types for specialized uses. A basic
fire hydrant to the pumper. The white hose
is a fire attack line.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
7
Many pumpers have one or more
A multipurpose apparatus, also called a quint,
preconnected hose lines comprised of a
is equipped to function as a pumper or an
nozzle and several hose sections that remain
aerial apparatus. If provided with adequate
coupled to each other and connected to a
staffing and positioned properly at a fire
pump discharge (figure 2.5). Firefighters
scene, a quint can perform both functions.
can quickly deploy preconnects, which
Other more specialized vehicles are used
are generally between 100 and 400 feet in
length. They can be extended with additional
by the fire service. These include rescue
units, hazardous materials units, air supply
hose, but this takes time — especially if the
preconnect is already charged with water.
units, lighting units, ambulances, and water
tenders. Access for pumpers will suffice
for these special units with the possible
exception of large or unusual facilities. For
instance, a sports arena may be designed for
ambulances to enter but not fire apparatus.
Where arenas are designed for large
trucks to access and set up concerts, the
opportunity exists for all fire apparatus to
access the venue.
Figure 2.5. A preconnected hose line in th
e front
bumper of a pumper. The hose is connected to the
red pump discharge outlet on the right and a nozzle
is connected to the other end of the hose.
An aerial apparatus (figure 2.6) is typically
equipped with a long ladder or elevating
platform on top, an assortment of portable
ladders (extension, roof, or folding types),
and many power and hand tools. The aerial
ladder/platform can extend, articulate, or
both. Aerial apparatus can be straight-frame
or articulating; the latter can make sharper
turns but requires a tiller driver to steer the
rear wheels.
An aerial apparatus along with its personnel
Figure 2.6. Two types of fire service aerial
is often called a truck (or ladder) company.
apparatus — one with a straight ladder (left) and
They are primarily responsible for support
the other with an elevating platform (right). The
functions, including forcible entry, search,
latter type of aerial apparatus is often referred to as
rescue, laddering, ventilation, and utility
a “tower”, “tower truck”, or “tower ladder”.
control. If an aerial apparatus is not available,
these functions must be performed by another
Emergency Operations
unit. All aerial apparatus are equipped with
A typical emergency begins with the
outriggers (also called stabilizers) to provide
discovery and reporting of an incident. The
support when the aerial ladder is extended.
time span of this phase can vary greatly,
8
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
and the fire service has no control over it.
followed by confining and extinguishing the
After the report is received, the information
fire. In some cases, firefighters must attack
is processed and the appropriate units are
the fire in order to attempt rescues.
alerted. Those firefighters not staffing the
Engine companies, which are usually first
station (whether volunteer, paid on-call, or
collateral-duty fire brigade members) must
to arrive at an incident scene, deliver water
for fire extinguishment. This involves
travel to the fire station. Firefighters then
don their protective equipment, board the
establishing a water supply from a reliable
source and attacking the fire with hose lines
vehicles, and the response phase begins. In
some organizations or scenarios, members
(figures 2.2 and 2.4) or other devices.
not staffing the station may go directly to the
Truck or ladder companies perform the support
incident scene. If the emergency is a fire, the
functions discussed above, including forcible
scene is usually referred to as a fireground.
entry and ventilation (figure 2.8). In areas
Stages of a fire emergency:
without truck companies, support functions are
handled by engine companies or other units
■■
Fire discovery
such as rescue squads.
■■
Fire reported
■■
Dispatch
■■
Response
■■
Arrival and setup
■■
Rescue and fire attack
■■
Fire containment and control
■■
Extinguishment
■■
Overhaul and salvage
■■
Investigation
Figure 2.8. Firefighters perform vertical ventilation
on a roof, relieving heat and smoke to assist interior
firefighting crews. Horizontal ventilation relieves
heat and smoke through windows, doors, or other
wall openings.
Many fire service organizations have
standard operating procedures that assign
different responsibilities to different units
depending on their order of arrival. Units that
are expected to arrive at an emergency scene
first are called first due units. Responsibilities
Figure 2.7. During initial operation at this
structure, the first arriving engine crew is already
may need to be reprioritized when one or
using a fire lane, a fire hydrant, the fire department
more occupants are in need of immediate
connection, and the key box. Interior operation will
rescue. While often immediate rescue may
soon involve the alarm system, stairs, standpipe
seem to be the most critical task, attacking
system, and other building features.
the fire might be a better tactic to protect
trapped or incapacitated occupants.
Upon arrival at an incident scene, firefighters
must handle many tasks. Standard operating
The management of all objectives, activities
procedures enable firefighters to quickly assess
and resources needed to successfully
the situation, and go into operation (figure 2.7).
mitigate an emergency is called incident
Rescuing occupants is the first priority,
command. This begins when the first arriving
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
9
officer rapidly gathers information, which
interior firefighting while at least two others
is called size-up or scene size-up. Incident
remain at a safe location outside to assist or
command expands as additional units and
rescue the interior crew. This helps to ensure
chief officers arrive. Commanders base their
the safety of the interior firefighting team.
strategy on the best information available
at any given time regarding the fire, the
building, and the occupants. Commanders
also take into consideration the emergency
resources and staffing available.
As they receive additional information,
commanders may revise their strategies,
including calling for additional resources.
Units responding from another jurisdiction
or district are referred to as mutual aid units.
Units that are dispatched without being
requested — usually based on inter-agency
Figure 2.9. An exterior fire attack.
agreements — are called automatic mutual
aid units. Mutual aid units will normally have
As operations expand, one or more larger
longer response times than first due units.
rescue team(s) will normally stand by outside
or at a staging area in a high-rise building.
Perhaps the most significant of the many
These are known as rapid intervention teams
decisions that must be made at a fire scene
or rapid intervention crews. Such teams are
is whether to attack a fire from the interior
a last resort and never a substitute for safe
(figure 1.1) or defensively from the exterior.
operations or proper building design.
Firefighters will often mount an interior attack
to protect any remaining building occupants
As the fire incident is brought under control,
from the advancing fire. However, this
several activities take place. Property that
often places the firefighters in a dangerous
can be saved is salvaged. The structure
situation. Incident commanders and safety
is overhauled to find and extinguish any
officers must evaluate this risk to make
remaining hot spots. This may include
proper attack mode decisions, both initially
removing building materials and opening wall
and on an ongoing basis.
cavities. An investigation is likely conducted
to determine the fire’s origin and cause. These
In other cases, due to fire advancement or
activities, although dangerous and important,
building conditions, a fire must be attacked
are less time-sensitive. As a result, they are
from the outside (figure 2.9). This is a critical
less of a consideration for building and fire
decision, so the more accurate information
protection system designers.
firefighters have on the fire, the building, its
contents, and the occupants, the more likely
How Stakeholders Can Help
they are to make sound decisions on the
initial fire attack mode and when to transition
Designers and code officials can provide
assistance by opening the lines of
to another mode.
communication as early as possible
OSHA’s Respiratory Protection standard
and continuing communication through
contains provisions that address interior
design and construction. Remember that
firefighting. One of these is known as the “Two
coordination should occur with both code
In - Two Out” rule; it mandates that at least two
officials and emergency response personnel
firefighters work together (partner) to conduct
in a given jurisdiction (figure 2.10). In some
10
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
cases, code officials have the authority and
in many National Institute for Occupational
responsibility to speak for responders, but
Safety and Health (NIOSH) firefighter fatality
not so in other cases. The questions provided
reports. Pre-incident plans should contain
at the end of each chapter and the table in the
the location of, and information about, the
Annex both facilitate this communication.
fire protection features discussed in this
manual. The plans are usually prepared and
maintained by the engine or truck company
first due at each facility. Designers can
assist in pre-incident planning by providing
copies of building and system plans (paper
or electronic) to the fire service, subject to
permission from building owners. Tools
such as computerized systems can facilitate
communicating pre-incident plans among all
responders that may credibly respond to an
emergency at a particular building.
The fire service should prepare a thorough
pre-incident plan, however, the best plan
Figure 2.10. Stakeholder communication.
cannot overcome situations where the first
Although designer/responder communication
due unit is committed to another emergency,
is important for all systems and features
is out of position, out of service, or involved
discussed in this manual, codes and
in training. Personnel changes can also not
standards may have specific sections that
be foreseen, so it is risky to count on all
require designers to obtain input from the
responding personnel to be aware of the
responsible fire service. This mandatory
pre-incident plan. Careful design, approval,
coordination is to assure that the needs of
and pre-incident planning should all function
emergency response personnel are met.
together to keep firefighters safe.
Pre-incident plans (often called pre-plans)
Specific ways in which all stakeholders
are documents prepared by the fire service
can contribute to pre-incident planning are
to assist in emergency operations in specific
covered in several sections in Chapter 13.
facilities. Their importance has been cited
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
11
Questions to Ask - Fire Service Knowledge
■■
Are challenges faced by the fire service understood?
■■
Do designers and code officials understand their role in creating workplaces for
firefighters?
■■
Do designers understand the organization and operation of the fire service in
specific project areas?
■■
Do designers and code officials understand the functions of different types of fire
apparatus?
■■
Have designers begun coordinating with jurisdictional representatives early?
■■
Does the coordination include both code officials and emergency responders?
■■
How can stakeholders contribute to fire service pre-incident planning?
Resources
■■
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health conducts investigations
of selected firefighter fatalities. Many of the investigation reports contain
gov/niosh/fire.
■■
The UL Firefighter Safety Research Institute has produced several research
reports that address aspects of firefighter safety in the built environment; available
at http://ulfirefightersafety.com.
■■
The National Institute of Standards and Technology conducts research on fire
protection, including firefighting technology and fire service staffing. Reports are
available at www.nist.gov/fire.
■■
The National Institute of Standards and Technology issued extensive reports on
the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 that are available at www.nist.gov/el/
disasterstudies/wtc. This agency maintains a list of the recommendations in those
reports and the resulting changes to the codes and standards. Several of these
recommendations address emergency response and building design issues. This
can serve as a resource for designers that want to exceed code requirements at
high-risk buildings.
■■
The U.S. Fire Administration has reports, publications, online courses available at
■■
The National Fire Academy has online courses such as Principles of Building
■■
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Changing Severity of Home Fires Report,
workshop.pdf.
■■
Polytechnic Institute of New York University, training module Fires in Modern
■■
FM Global Data Sheet 1-3, High-Rise Buildings
12
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
In all cases, consider the maximum
CHAPTER 3
practicable dimensions for design, since
FIRE APPARATUS ACCESS
future apparatus purchases or mutual
The faster the fire service can respond
aid apparatus from other jurisdictions
and set up, the sooner they can begin to
may exceed the requirements in a given
mitigate an incident. This should translate
jurisdiction at any given time.
into increased safety for firefighters and
Codes may contain provisions that allow
occupants as well as decreased property
reduced levels of access when approved fire
loss and indirect business loss. The time
sprinkler protection is provided. However, as
taken to set up and sustain firefighting
discussed in Chapter 1 of this document, fire
operations can be considerable for high-rises
is only one of many types of emergencies
and other complex buildings. This time can
that may occur and necessitate a fire service
be extended when the fire location is not
response. These provisions should be applied
obvious or is remote from the arrival location.
carefully and with a full understanding by all
Properly positioning fire apparatus at a fire
stakeholders of their ramifications.
scene can facilitate search and rescue efforts
Several concerns can conflict with the need
and effective use of hose streams and ladders.
for fire apparatus access. These concerns
The more room apparatus have to operate,
include security needs and the desire
the more options will be available to mitigate
for green space and walkability. Flexible
the incident (figure 3.1). This is especially
and innovative thinking, as well as early
important when apparatus need to pass each
coordination among stakeholders, can
other or reposition during an emergency. This
usually overcome these challenges.
chapter contains considerations to help with
access and positioning fire apparatus.
Related to fire apparatus access are premises
identification and firefighter access. These
are covered in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively.
Extent and Number
In some cases, one route is available for fire
apparatus to reach a building. Sometimes
optional (or secondary) access routes (figure
3.2) are needed for high-value or high-risk
facilities or where a single access route may
become impaired by factors such as traffic
congestion or weather conditions.
Figure 3.1. An apartment fire where the fire
apparatus access was adequate width and a
proper distance from the building.
Many buildings are located on public streets
that provide good access to at least one side
in the case of an emergency. Others are set
back from public streets and have private fire
lanes. Both enable fire apparatus to approach
the building and operate.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
13
During site renovations and additions,
designers should exercise particular caution
to ensure that the perimeter access continues
to meet applicable codes. The original
building size may have been based upon a
frontage increase allowance. Changing the
amount of perimeter access can result in
noncompliant building size without changing
the building at all.
Dimensions
Figure 3.2. A secondary emergency
access (foreground) supplements the
Width
main vehicle entrance/exit (background)
in an apartment complex.
The dimensions for roads and fire lanes that
lead to a building must accommodate all
The next consideration is the proximity of the
apparatus that will use them. Spaces wider
access to the building (figure 3.3). Traffic and
than the apparatus itself may be needed for
parking patterns should not inhibit apparatus
several reasons. One is to enable apparatus
access. The distance from the building to
to pass each other if necessary to facilitate
a road or fire lane is sometimes referred to
developing and expanding operations.
as the setback distance. Codes may have
Near hydrants or other water sources,
variations that consider building size, height,
engine companies may need a wider area
sprinkler protection, and separation from
to facilitate hose connections, allow other
other buildings.
fire service vehicles to pass, or permit water
tenders to position alongside pumpers. Near
buildings where aerial apparatus is available,
accommodate the outriggers necessary to
support the aerial ladder or elevating platform
while in operation; this can greatly exceed the
basic width of the apparatus (figure 3.4).
Figure 3.3. An overhead view of a hotel
surrounded by fire lanes.
The options available for attacking a fire
increase when a building’s perimeter becomes
more accessible to fire apparatus. Building
codes contain a concept known as frontage
increase. This allows the maximum size of the
Figure 3.4. An aerial apparatus
building to be increased if a structure has more
showing outriggers extended to
than a certain percentage of its perimeter on
support the aerial ladder.
a public way or open space accessible to fire
apparatus. Ideally the full perimeter would be
accessible; however, this is not always feasible.
14
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
The area designated as the fire lane must be
maintained clear. Additional space should be
provided to accommodate vehicle parking
(figure 3.5), trash containers, passenger
drop-off, equipment staging, and loading or
unloading areas. Anticipate as many such
uses as possible to prevent encroachment on
the clear width of fire lanes.
Figure 3.6. An aerial apparatus positioned
at the corner of a building — a location that
maximizes the number of windows that the
aerial ladder can reach.
Figure 3.5. The parking spaces on the right do not
reduce the width of this fire lane.
Height
Proximity
All apparatus must have enough vertical
clearance. Overhead obstacles such as trees
It is important for fire apparatus to have close
or power lines can obstruct both portable
access to buildings to facilitate the stretching
and aerial ladders and should be avoided
of hose lines, the use of a master stream
or minimized whenever possible (figure 3.7).
device, or the placement of portable ladders.
Extra clearance should be considered in
Long hose stretches can delay the time it
areas subject to snow accumulation.
takes to contain or extinguish a fire. Similarly,
carrying ladders a long distance can delay
access or rescue.
In areas where an aerial apparatus may
respond to an emergency, roads and fire
lanes should be a sufficient distance from
the building to accommodate aerial ladder
operation (figure 3.6). Access too far away will
preclude aerial ladder reach; locations too close
may cause difficulty rotating the aerial ladder
and prevent it from reaching some windows.
Emergency responders should specify to
designers and code officials a distance that is
appropriate between the building and the edge
Figure 3.7. Lights strung across this street
of the access road or fire lane.
preclude the use of aerial ladders and
limit the use of portable ladders.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
15
Turning Radius
The minimum turning radius (inside and
outside edges) for the most restrictive fire
apparatus should be considered.
Turnarounds
Dead-end fire lanes or roads that exceed a
certain length should have a means for fire
apparatus to turn around. Turnarounds save
considerable time when a fire apparatus
needs to reposition during an incident.
They also eliminate the need to back up a
long distance. Backing up apparatus is both
difficult and dangerous, particularly during
an emergency situation.
There are a number of configurations that
facilitate turning maneuvers. These include
“T-turn” and “Y-turn” arrangements (figure
3.8) as well as round cul-de-sacs of the
proper radius and width.
Design
Material
All-weather paved or concrete surfaces
are the best materials for fire lanes. Some
Figure 3.8. Fire apparatus “Y-” and “T-turnarounds.”
jurisdictions permit using alternative material
Reprinted with permission from NFPA® 1-2012, Fire
such as grass paver blocks (figure 3.9) that
allow an area to be partially landscaped.
Protection Association, Quincy, MA. This reprinted
material is not the complete and official position
Another is subsurface construction that
of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is
permits an area to be partially or fully
represented only by the standard in its entirety.
landscaped, while being strong enough to
allow fire apparatus to negotiate the area.
Permeable surfaces may be an important
environmental feature.
Unless their perimeter is clearly marked, it
is easy for apparatus to drive off the edge of
alternative materials. Over time, the access
can become obscured. Also, in regions where
snow accumulates, grass paver blocks and
subsurface construction cannot be plowed
effectively (figures 3.9 and 3.10).
Figure 3.9. Grass paver blocks were chosen instead
of paving for this fire lane. The aesthetic benefits are
minimal, and the road cannot be plowed effectively.
16
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Figure 3.10. The same fire lane covered with
snow. Access is blocked by a mound of snow
plowed from the adjacent parking lot.
Figure 3.11. A rolled curb at the entrance
Where a surface is not readily identifiable by
to a private fire lane from a public street.
civilians as a fire lane, obstructions are more
likely. Signage can help the fire lane remain
Load
clear of any items that can slow or impede
responding fire apparatus.
Bridges, piers, boardwalks, plazas with
underground structures, and other elevated
Grade
surfaces should be built to withstand the
necessary fire apparatus load. Load limits
The maximum grade (slope) must
should be clearly posted at all vehicle entry
accommodate all apparatus that may
points.
respond to an emergency. When aerial
apparatus is set up for operation, the vehicle
Security
body must be leveled with the outriggers.
Too steep of a grade will preclude aerial
Fire lanes can be dedicated to fire service
ladder operation. The shallowest grade
use (private), or can also serve ordinary
possible would allow for the most rapid
vehicular traffic (public). Each approach has
setup. However, a slight grade can be
its advantages and limitations.
beneficial to help prevent pooling of water as
In public fire lanes, vehicle parking must
well as ice buildup where applicable.
be controlled (figure 3.12). Fire lane
Dips should be avoided to preclude
signage is important, both for the public
damage to undercarriage components and
and enforcement officials. Examples
equipment. Apparatus with long wheel-bases
include signs (figure 3.13), curb painting,
are particularly vulnerable to this.
or curb stenciling. In areas subject to snow
accumulations, curb painting or stenciling is
Traditional curbs cannot be negotiated easily
subject to being obscured. A jurisdiction’s
by fire apparatus. However, rolled or rounded
requirements must be followed exactly to
curbs (figure 3.11) can help in several ways.
ensure that no-parking provisions are legally
They can serve as the entry to a fire lane
enforceable. However, even with the proper
without giving civilians the impression of a
marking or signage, parking restrictions are
driveway. Such curbs adjacent to properly
often difficult to enforce.
designed sidewalks can effectively increase
access width without widening the width of
the road or fire lane.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
17
Figure 3.14. An entrance to a private fire lane.
The delays caused by electronic gates can be
minimized by providing the fire service with
access cards or remote access controls.
Figure 3.12. A public fire lane.
All bollards must be removable in some
fashion. Rapid removability allows quick
access. Wooden bollards can be designed
with cuts near their bases to allow access when
apparatus bump them and break them (figure
3.15). However, the time needed to clear break-
away bollards from the path of apparatus may
cause delays and apparatus damage.
Figure 3.13. Fire lane signs. Diagram excerpted
from the 2012 International Fire Code and
International Code Council. Reproduced with
permission. All rights reserved. [www.ICCsafe.org].
Clearly marking turnarounds is particularly
important. One car can often make the entire
turnaround impassible for fire apparatus.
Access to private fire lanes may be restricted
Figure 3.15. Wooden break-away bollards.
by barriers such as bollards, pop-up
barricades, or gates (manual or powered).
Mechanisms for opening or gaining access
These access control measures can be
through all apparatus access barriers should
effective in keeping vehicular traffic out of fire
be clearly communicated to emergency
lanes (figure 3.14) but can delay fire apparatus
responders. Pre-incident plans should
response time. During the design phase of a
document how emergency responders can
project, the persons responsible for security
open or remove access barriers.
should coordinate with those who provide fire
protection to help resolve concerns. Remote
Traffic Calming Features
and automatic operators for gates address this
Speed bumps/humps/tables, narrow road
concern. In addition, consider proper gate size,
widths, curvy arrangements, and islands
location, and swing direction.
are traffic calming features used to control
vehicular traffic speed (figure 3.16). Most
18
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
such measures that slow traffic also hinder
Some special speed bump designs allow
fire apparatus access, delaying their arrival
only fire apparatus to straddle bumps. All
to a fire scene. Accordingly, jurisdictions
speed bumps should be painted or striped.
may require special approval before traffic
Provide signs nearby to indicate their
calming features can be installed.
location, especially in climates subject to the
accumulation of snow and ice.
Figure 3.16. A traffic calming island.
Questions to Ask - Fire Apparatus Access
■■
Is a single approach to the building acceptable or are more required?
■■
How near to the building must apparatus access reach?
■■
How many sides of the building must have access?
■■
What is the maximum dead-end access before a turnaround will be required?
■■
What are the minimum height, width, slope, and turning radius for apparatus
access?
■■
What distance from the building will facilitate aerial use?
■■
Will overhead obstructions be prohibited to facilitate aerial access?
■■
What material is allowed for access routes?
■■
Are there any building areas housing hazardous materials or processes that would
require unique or special apparatus access?
■■
Should the access be public? If so, how will parking be controlled?
■■
Should the access be private? If so, what means for rapid entry will be necessary?
■■
Are traffic calming devices allowed or restricted?
Resources
■■
IFC and IBC
■■
NFPA 1 and 5000
■■
NFPA 1141, Standard for Fire Protection Infrastructure for Land Development in
Wildland, Rural, and Suburban Areas
■■
Congress for the New Urbanism, Emergency Response and Street Design Initiative,
■■
U.S. Department of Transportation standards, include Manual on Uniform Traffic
■■
American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO),
Standard Specification for Highway Bridges
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
19
an on-site tank, pump, and piping system. The
CHAPTER 4
on-site system may feed private fire hydrants
WATER SUPPLY
and/or building suppression systems.
Water is used to suppress most fires, so
In rural and suburban areas where a
an adequate water supply is crucial to fire
municipal water supply system is not
service operations (figure 4.1). The supply
available, static water sources such as lakes,
must deliver an adequate amount of water
ponds, cisterns, fountains, and swimming
through a distribution system to the locations
pools are often used. Pumpers draft water
needed. The system can serve manual
from static water sources to pump water
firefighting (typically through fire hydrants),
through hose lines. The capacity of static
fire standpipe systems, fire sprinkler systems,
water sources should take into consideration
other water-based suppression systems,
the frequency of drought conditions in accord
and non-fire needs (industrial, commercial,
with applicable codes or insurance standards.
domestic, etc.).
Dry fire hydrants (figure 4.2) are often
provided for static water sources. These
hydrants allow pumpers to quickly draft
water without the need to set up suction
hoses to the static water source. Fire
apparatus access must permit pumpers to
drive close enough to use dry hydrants or to
suction water directly from the static source.
Figure 4.1. A pumper supplying water
from a fire hydrant to a fire scene.
Municipal water supply systems (including
the distribution system and hydrants
on public land) are generally under the
jurisdiction of a local water authority.
Municipal systems also feed water to private
property for both fire and non-fire needs. The
private property line is usually the boundary
between the public portion (under the water
authority) and the privately-owned portion.
Property owners are primarily responsible for
the private portion; however, designers and
contractors share responsibility during the
Figure 4.2. A dry fire hydrant piped
design and construction phases, respectively.
to the lake in the background.
Private water supply systems are those
Where an incident is remote from the water
contained fully on private property — for
source, a shuttle is often set up. A shuttle
example, when the water supply consists of
operation involves several pumpers or tenders
20
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
filling a temporary basin at the incident scene
maximum flow rate available is usually given
and other pumpers drafting water from the
as the gpm available at 20 psi because the
basin to attack the fire (figure 4.3). Rural fire
distribution system is subject to damage at
services often have pumpers with large-
lower pressures. The duration of an expected
capacity tanks for initial attack or tanker
incident in terms of time will determine the
vehicles that carry a large amount of water.
quantity of water when multiplied by the
required flow (for example: 1,500 gpm x 60
minutes = 90,000 gallons).
Water mains should be fed from two
directions whenever possible. This increases
reliability — for example, when flow from
one direction must be shut off for repair or
maintenance. Experience has also shown that
dead-end piping fed from a single direction
is subject to greater flow-restricting deposits
due to smaller domestic flows.
Figure 4.3. A rural water supply operation.
Codes and installation standards for
The water tender on the left is filling the yellow
suppression systems such as sprinklers
portable basin. The pumper on the right is drafting
and standpipes have criteria that determine
water from that basin to feed hose lines.
their water supply needs. The available
water supply must meet the greater of the
Fire Flow
suppression system demand or the required
Fire flow is the rate and amount of water the
fire flow for manual firefighting discussed
fire service needs to manually extinguish
above. The two are typically not additive
anticipated fires. The fire flow must be
because, for example, properly designed
available in excess of that required for other
and installed full-coverage sprinkler systems
purposes such as industrial, commercial, and
should keep fires controlled, reducing the
domestic water demands. Several references
water needed for manual firefighting.
in the resource section at the end of this
chapter include fire flow tables or charts.
In some cases building and fire codes dictate
The minimum fire flow is typically based
certain water supply features. One example
on factors such as building construction,
is a secondary water supply to supplement
building size, occupancy, and contents.
the primary supply to high-rise buildings.
Another example is the use of cisterns to
To determine the minimum required fire flow,
augment water distribution systems that are
consider adequate flow rate (gallons per
subject to earthquake damage.
minute, or gpm), sufficient pressure (pounds
per square inch, or psi), and total quantity of
Water supply systems are tested and
water (gallons). The flow rate is that needed
evaluated in different ways, depending on the
to extinguish the materials anticipated to
purpose of the evaluation (figure 4.4). Since
be burning. Pressure is provided by either
systems may deteriorate over time in several
pumping the water (using a fire pump) or
ways, recent testing is very important for
elevating it (in a tank). As the flow rate from
proper evaluation. Considering the possibility
a system increases, the available pressure
of future deterioration or additional demand
will decrease unless pumps are throttled
on the system (for example, by applying a
up or additional pumps are started. The
safety factor) can be equally as important.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
21
Fire pump controllers are the enclosures
Total fire flow for
Evaluated by considering the
that contain electric circuitry and status
manual firefighting
supply system in its entirety
indicators for a fire pump. They should be
to determine its adequacy for
within sight of the fire pump motor or engine.
either the building expected
An automatic transfer switch, which is often
to need the highest demand
in a separate enclosure, transfers power to
during an incident or a
a secondary power source (when provided).
particular building served by
Adequate space around all fire pump
the system.
equipment will allow firefighter access during
Flow and pressure
Evaluated at the system
emergency incidents.
available for a
supply point(s). This can be
building’s sprinkler
the point(s) of connection
Fire pumps are remotely monitored for pump
and/or standpipe
to a municipal supply
running, power failure, phase reversal, and
systems
system and/or an on-site
controller trouble. Remote alarm signals
supply source. In existing
are often incorporated into fire alarm
buildings with fire pumps,
annunciators or fire command centers to
testing at the discharge side
enable the fire service to quickly identify
of the fire pump will yield
the status of a given fire pump. Designers
results corrected for the
and code officials should discuss whether
pump conditions and any
these remote signals should cause an alarm
deterioration or obstruction
condition as discussed in Chapter 11.
upstream of that point.
Fire pumps
Evaluated by measuring the
The most desirable location for a fire pump is
pressure boost at various
in a separate building. This gives firefighters
flows and comparing the
easy access to the pump and its controllers
values obtained with the
while providing the most protection from
expected performance based
fire. If locating the pump in a separate
on the pump’s rated capacity
building is not possible, a fire-rated room
or certified performance
with an outside entrance is the next best
curve. This is typically
option (figure 4.5). Least preferred is an
done when new pumps
interior room, in which case a fire-rated
are acceptance-tested and
access corridor from the exterior is crucial.
periodically thereafter.
Regardless of its location, label the room and
how to access it so firefighters are able to
Figure 4.4. Water supply evaluation.
quickly identify it.
Fire Pumps
Fire pumps are usually provided with a test
header consisting of several male hose
Fire pumps are used in water distribution
outlets. These can resemble fire department
systems and at buildings or complexes to
connection female inlets from a distance,
boost the water pressure to sprinkler and
especially when the outlets are capped. Signs
standpipe systems. The latter is necessary
can help avoid confusion with wording such
when the system is fed by an atmospheric
as “Do Not Pump Into These Fittings”.
(non-pressurized) water tank or when
the water supply feeding the system has
Hose connected to test headers and charged
inadequate pressure. A fire pump may be
will be rigid. To avoid obstructing firefighter
driven by an electric motor, diesel engine, or
access and occupant egress, position test
steam turbine.
headers so their outlets point away from
egress or access doors.
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Dry barrel hydrants (figure 4.7) are used on
pressurized water distribution systems in
climates subject to freezing. A valve below
the frost line is activated by an operating
nut on the top. When the valve is opened,
water fills the hydrant body (or barrel) above
it. All hose outlets on the hydrant are then
pressurized concurrently. A drain is provided
to allow gravity to empty the barrel of water
when the valve is off. Clogged drains and
poor valve seals are common reasons for
hydrants to freeze and become inoperable.
Figure 4.5. An outside door to a fire pump room
identified by the red sign.
Emergency responders should be trained on
the operation of fire pumps. This is discussed
further in Chapter 13.
Fire Hydrant Features
Type
Wet barrel hydrants are used in warm
Figure 4.7. A dry barrel fire hydrant.
climates on pressurized water distribution
systems. Water remains in the barrel of
Dry hydrants are used on static water supply
the hydrant at all times. Each hose outlet
sources. They facilitate pumpers drafting water
is individually valved, and can therefore be
from the static source (see figure 4.2).
operated one at a time (figure 4.6).
Outlets
The size, number, and type (threaded or quick-
connect) of hydrant outlets vary between
jurisdictions. It is essential that the outlets
match the fire service’s hose couplings. If the
outlets do not match the couplings, adapters
can be used, but will slow the set-up time. In
addition, every pumper might not carry every
adapter needed if numerous outlet types are
used in the region.
All hydrant outlets should be provided with
protective caps to help prevent vandalism. If
the outlets are threaded, caps also protect the
male threads.
Figure 4.6. A wet barrel fire hydrant. The
operating nut for the small hose outlet is on the
Typically, hydrants have a large hose outlet
right. The operating nut for the large outlet is on
(4 1/2 inches is a common size) called a
the rear of the hydrant.
pumper outlet or steamer connection. They
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
23
normally also have one or more 2 1/2 inch
hose outlets. Both wet-barrel type hydrants
and the dry-barrel types used in areas subject
to freezing have these features as shown in
figures 4.6 and 4.7.
Dry hydrants (those connected to a static
source such as a tank, well, or pond) usually
have only a large pumper outlet as seen in
figure 4.2 above. Often this outlet is 6 inches
in diameter.
Figure 4.8. A fire hydrant with flow indicator sign.
Marking and Signage
Security
Several methods are used to enable
Fire hydrant operating nuts and outlet caps
firefighters to rapidly identify hydrant
are subject to theft, so jurisdictions use
locations. The color used for hydrants
various means to secure the operating nuts
should contrast as much as possible with
or caps.
the surroundings. Some jurisdictions use
reflective paint on hydrants or reflective
Fire Hydrant Placement
tape around them. Other jurisdictions prefer
reflectors (usually blue) in the roadway
Spacing
in front of each hydrant; however, in cold
The maximum distance between hydrants
weather climates these reflectors are often
(typically addressed in fire codes) determines
obstructed by snow.
how much hose will be needed to reach a
fire. Pumpers carry a limited amount of hose.
A common way to identify hydrants in areas
Relay pumping over longer distances is
subject to significant snowfalls is a locator
possible, but introduces significant delays in
pole which is visible above the highest
delivering water to an incident scene.
expected snowfall. These are reflective or
contrasting in color, and some have a flag,
Where apparatus may approach from
sign, or reflector mounted on top (figure 4.7).
different directions, hydrants should be placed
These poles should be flexible enough to
primarily at or near intersections. It may be
allow a hydrant wrench to be utilized on the
desirable to place them a short distance from
hydrant’s operating nut. Some jurisdictions
the intersection so that pumpers do not block
or sites go so far as mounting a light (usually
the intersection for other fire apparatus (figure
red or blue) above or near hydrants.
4.9). This would depend on where pumper
intake hoses are mounted as discussed in the
A system to indicate the flow capability of
following section.
individual hydrants can facilitate fire service
operations. A color-coded system is described
in NFPA 291, Recommended Practice for Fire
Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants. Another
system is simply to mark hydrants with their
flow range in gpm (figure 4.8) available at 20
psi (the minimum desired pressure).
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Figure 4.10. A pumper stopped to initiate a
straight hose lay from a hydrant.
Figure 4.9. A fire hydrant located too close to an
intersection can result in pumpers blocking other
apparatus access.
Additional hydrants are placed within
long blocks or as necessary to maintain a
maximum spacing. This spacing is often
based on the quantity of supply hose carried
by a jurisdiction’s pumpers.
Location
Pumpers may utilize hydrants in different
ways. If a hydrant is close enough to the
Figure 4.11. The same pumper completing the
emergency incident, a pumper can position
straight lay towards the fire scene, and a firefighter
at the hydrant and use its intake hose.
preparing to operate the hydrant.
These large-diameter hoses are often pre-
connected to an intake on the pumper’s front
bumper (see the short length of hose in figure
4.9), rear step, or side. In some urban areas,
pumpers carry intake hoses long enough
to reach hydrants on the opposite side of a
single line of parallel parked cars.
If an incident is not in close proximity to
a hydrant, longer supply hose line(s) will
be needed between the hydrant and the
incident scene. This can be done by manually
stretching hose, but it is usually faster and
more efficient for a pumper to lay hose as it
Figure 4.12. A pumper performing a reverse hose
proceeds. A pumper laying a supply hose line
lay from a fire scene towards a hydrant. Once
the hose lay is completed, the pumper will feed
from a hydrant towards the incident scene is
water through the hose line to the portable master
called a straight or forward hose lay (figures
stream device shown on the lower right.
4.10 and 4.11). The opposite — laying supply
hose from an emergency scene to a hydrant
Fire services typically use either straight or
farther down the street — is called a reverse
reverse hose lays as their standard water
lay (figure 4.12).
supply procedure. Designers should take
this into account when locating hydrants.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
25
For instance, hydrants at the far end of
distance equal to 150 percent of the building’s
dead-end streets will facilitate reverse lays.
height. This is not a concern in urban areas
Hydrants at entrances to dead-end streets
where a multitude of hydrants are typically
or building complexes will facilitate straight
available for any given location.
lays (figure 4.13).
Hydrant position should also take into account
the location of fire department connections
that feed water-based suppression systems.
This is covered in detail in Chapter 10.
Position and Protection
Fire hydrants that are properly positioned
facilitate rapid positioning of fire apparatus
and full use of hydrants. Considerations
for designers include height, orientation,
distance from the apparatus access, distance
from surrounding obstructions, and vehicle
impact protection.
Positioning of hydrants at a proper height
Figure 4.13. A fire hydrant (left foreground) at the
allows rapid connection of hose lines and
vehicle entrance to a complex of buildings.
devices. Positioning that is too low will
preclude removing outlet caps and attaching
A split lay is a combination of straight and
hose or other devices. These devices
reverse lays. When the first-arriving engine
include special hydrant valves to facilitate
company does not pass a water source
the connection of multiple pumpers to one
during its response, they can straight lay
hydrant.
from any point such as a property entrance.
Another engine company can reverse lay
Hydrants with a pumper outlet should
from that same point to a water source,
be oriented so that the outlet faces the
completing the supply. The proper number
apparatus access. This will facilitate the use
and distribution of hydrants can reduce the
of pumper intake hoses.
need for split lays — which take two engine
companies to accomplish — thereby making
Proper setback distance from the apparatus
better use of resources.
access will serve two functions. A maximum
distance will allow the use of intake hoses
Hydrants that are too close to a particular
on pumpers. A minimum distance will help
building are less likely to be used due to
avoid vehicle impact, especially if the fire
potential fire exposure or collapse. Consider
lane or street is not curbed. Hydrants subject
locations with blank walls, no windows
to vehicle damage can also be protected by
or doors, and where structural collapse is
guard posts that are often called bollards
unlikely (such as building corners). A rule of
(figure 4.14).
thumb for collapse zone size is a horizontal
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
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