Fire Service Features of Buildings and Fire Protection Systems (2015) - part 2

 

  Index      Manuals     Fire Service Features of Buildings and Fire Protection Systems (2015)

 

Search            copyright infringement  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Content      ..      1      2      3      ..

 

 

 

Fire Service Features of Buildings and Fire Protection Systems (2015) - part 2

 

 

Hydrants need a clear distance to enable a
fences, pipes, poles, downspouts, built-in or
hydrant wrench to be swung 360 degrees
heavy furniture, and vehicle impact protection
on any operating nut or cap nut (figure 4.14).
bollards. Take into account potential growth
Designers and code officials must consider
of vegetation when planning for hydrant
all obstructions. Fixed obstructions include
placement. Anticipate transient obstructions
utility poles, signs, walls, vegetation, planters,
such as stock, merchandise, and vehicles.
Figure 4.14. A diagram of hydrant impact protection bollards (shown
as guard posts) and clearance distance. Diagram excerpted from
Washington, DC: International Code Council. Reproduced with
permission. All rights reserved. [www.ICCsafe.org].
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
27
Questions to Ask - Water Supply
■■
Are the proper water flow, pressure, and quantity available for manual firefighting?
■■
Is a recent flow test used for design of sprinkler and standpipe systems? Must a safety
factor be provided for future supply system changes? For future tenant renovations?
■■
Are fire pumps easily accessible and marked?
■■
Are fire pumps located where they will be protected from fire and other hazards?
■■
Where must the remote fire pump alarm and supervisory signals be located?
■■
Have fire apparatus approach directions and hose-laying procedures been
considered when locating hydrants?
■■
Are hydrants properly positioned relative to the street or apparatus access?
■■
Are hydrants outside of potential collapse zones?
■■
Are hydrants located away from fixed, temporary, and transient obstructions?
■■
Are hydrant locations coordinated with FDC locations (also see Chapter 10)?
■■
Are hydrants set at the proper height?
■■
Are hydrant outlets coordinated with fire service hose coupling types?
■■
Is vehicle impact protection (curbs, bollards, etc.) provided for hydrants?
■■
Will a hydrant marking or color-coding system to indicate flow be needed?
■■
Will hydrant locator poles be needed in areas subject to snow?
■■
Will hydrant outlets or operating nuts need to be locked?
Resources
■■
IFC
■■
NFPA 1
■■
NFPA 20, Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection
■■
NFPA 24, Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and their
Appurtenances
■■
NFPA 291, Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants
■■
NFPA 1142, Standard for Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Firefighting
■■
American Water Works Association standards
■■
U.S. Fire Administration, Water Supply Systems and Evaluation Methods, available
volume_i.pdf
■■
Insurance Services Office, Inc., Guide for Determination of Needed Fire Flow,
■■
FM Global Data Sheet 3-2, Water Tanks for Fire Protection
■■
FM Global Data Sheet 3-7, Fire Protection Pumps
■■
FM Global Data Sheet 3-10, Installation/Maintenance of Fire Service Mains
■■
Fire Protection Research Foundation, Evaluation of Fire Flow Methodologies, 2014,
projects-reports-and-proceedings/for-emergency-responders/fireground-operations/
evaluation-of-fire-flow-methodologies
■■
Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University, Fire Protection Hydraulics
and Water Supply Analysis
28
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Address numbers should be large enough
CHAPTER 5
to be legible from the street. Large address
PREMISES IDENTIFICATION
numbers for buildings set back from the
The fire service must be able to rapidly
street are helpful (figure 5.1).
locate and identify a specific building when
an emergency incident is underway. While
typically easy to locate a properly-displayed
address where buildings face nearby streets,
there are other instances where it is a
challenge.
Assignment of address numbers and names
is ordinarily the responsibility of the local
jurisdiction. This can be complicated by
unusually-shaped buildings or those fronting
on two or more streets. It is important
that the U.S. Postal Service and the local
jurisdiction have the same understanding of
all assigned address numbers.
Figure 5.1. A large address number.
Street name assignments are followed by
a designator such as Street, Lane, Avenue,
If either obstructions or the location of the
Boulevard, Court, Way, etc. It is important
building prevent the address from being
that this designator is properly assigned
clearly visible from the street, supplemental
for each project and all records. This will
signs should be provided (figure 5.2) in
help ensure proper fire service pre-incident
addition to displaying the address numbers
planning and response.
on the building.
Some cities have quadrant or section
designators such as northwest (NW),
southeast (SE), etc. Addresses may be
duplicated in two or more quadrants or
sections, making the full address assignment
important for each project and all records.
Many jurisdictions have a minimum height
requirement for address number characters,
which is typically specified in building and fire
codes. This can vary depending on whether the
Figure 5.2. A supplemental address sign at
buildings are residential or other properties.
the vehicle entrance to a building (out of view
Use of colors that sharply contrast with the
on the left) that is set far back from the public
background will increase legibility (readability).
street (on the right).
Arabic numerals are often considered the
A single address number will likely be
easiest to read. If spelled-out numbers are
sufficient even for large or long buildings —
permitted (for example, “One Hundred
if they can be approached from a single
Twenty” instead of “120”), numerals should
direction. Otherwise, displaying addresses at
also be provided to allow responding
multiple locations would be helpful.
firefighters to quickly locate an address.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
29
Address numbers on the building should face
the street on which the building is addressed.
If one or more building entrances face a
different street, it would be helpful to include
both the street name and the number on each
address sign (figure 5.3). This is also a good
idea for rear or side entrances that face alleys
or parking lots.
Figure 5.5. A diagrammatic sign showing an
entire complex of buildings and their addresses.
Figure 5.3. An address sign that includes the
Building complex diagrams should be
street name and street designator.
provided to the fire service. This will assist
them with pre-incident planning (discussed
Rapidly locating a particular building within a
further in Chapter 13) and the development of
building group (complex) can be particularly
map books.
challenging. At the vehicle entrances to
such sites, and at intersections within them,
Consider a combined numbering scheme
additional signs with directional arrows and/
in complexes where buildings have several
or diagrams of the buildings and access
tenants with exterior entrances. The first
arrangement can quickly direct responding
digit(s) would be the address number and
firefighters to the correct building (figures
the following digit(s) would be the tenant
5.4 and 5.5). Some jurisdictions may desire
number; for example, designation 2203-
additional features on diagrammatic signs
16 would be address number 2203, tenant
such as fire hydrants, fire department
16. If an entire complex of buildings has a
connections, fire alarm annunciator panels,
single address, a numbering scheme could
swimming pools, and recreational courts.
coordinate building and tenant numbers;
for example, designation 12-16 would be
building 12, tenant 16. See the Room and
Floor Designations section in Chapter 6 for a
discussion of interior numbering.
Whenever possible, address numbers and
any supplementary signs should be visible
in all expected weather situations and
all lighting conditions, including at night.
Normally, site lighting is sufficient if designed
Figure 5.4. A directional address sign.
with this in mind, but in some situations
30
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
supplemental illumination (lighting fixtures
See the Firefighter Access section of Chapter
or reflective materials) will be needed to
6 for signage to assist the fire service in
maximize nighttime visibility.
identifying interior locations and exterior
entrances.
In areas subject to snow accumulation,
addresses and supplemental signs should be
See Chapter 11 for additional means of
positioned above the height of anticipated
identifying particular addresses, sections,
accumulations. A canopy or small roof may
wings, or tenants through fire alarm remote
help keep the sign legible.
reporting.
Questions to Ask - Premises Identification
■■
Are project addresses coordinated between the local jurisdiction and the U.S. Postal
Service?
■■
Do addresses include the proper street designator? Quadrant/section designator?
■■
Is each building provided with a clearly legible address number in Arabic numerals?
■■
Are address numerals large enough and high enough to be legible from the fire
apparatus access?
■■
Will addresses be needed at multiple points on long or large buildings?
■■
For entrances facing other streets, will the street name and designator be required
along with the address number?
■■
Will supplementary signs be needed at the street for buildings set far back from
the street?
■■
For building groups or complexes, will directional or diagrammatic signs be needed
at entrances? At intersections within the complex?
■■
Must addresses and signs be illuminated?
■■
Do sign position and features take into account expected snowfall?
Resources
■■
IFC and IBC
■■
NFPA 1 and 5000
■■
NFPA 1141, Standard for Fire Protection Infrastructure for Land Development in
Wildland, Rural, and Suburban Areas
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
31
storage, etc. Proper design can eliminate
CHAPTER 6
or minimize many of these obstructions.
FIREFIGHTER ACCESS
Give consideration to the maximum growth
Once firefighters have arrived at an
potential of bushes and trees.
emergency scene and positioned their
Sloped grade adjacent to a building has
apparatus, they perform a variety of manual
two drawbacks. First, it increases the
tasks. These include stretching hose lines,
exertion required to haul hose lines and
placing ladders, forcing entry, climbing
other equipment. This exertion is often
stairs, and controlling utilities. Some factors
complicated by inclement weather. Secondly,
affecting firefighters’ efficiency include: the
steep slopes can hinder and even prevent the
distance and terrain between the apparatus
use of portable ladders. One rule of thumb
access and the building; how easily they
is to place the base of a portable ladder a
can enter the building; the building’s interior
horizontal distance away from the building
layout, vertical access (stairs/elevators/
equal to one-quarter of the vertical distance
roof) and how quickly they can locate fire
the ladder is extended. Accordingly, grade
protection features and utilities (figure 6.1).
that is slightly sloped for a distance from the
Building designers and code officials can
building will make ladder use easier. This
make a positive impact in all of these areas.
distance should be at least one-quarter the
length of the longest fire service portable
ladder or the height of the building roof —
whichever is shorter.
Key Boxes
Firefighters must enter the building at one or
more points to conduct interior firefighting
or rescue operations. The fire service has an
array of tools to force entry into buildings.
However, forcing entry takes extra time and
Figure 6.1. A building with poor apparatus access
and challenging terrain for firefighters stretching
usually causes damage.
hose lines and placing portable ladders.
Key boxes (also called access boxes or lock
boxes) are small lockable vaults mounted on
Site Access
buildings (figure 6.2) or nearby (figure 6.3).
Firefighters must hand carry all equipment
The fire service retains the master key to
beyond the point where access for apparatus
unlock the boxes, which contain keys and key
ends. Increased distances and steeply sloped
cards to the building doors, elevators, and
terrain result in additional time and effort
other equipment. Some jurisdictions require
to set up ladders, hose lines, and other
listed key boxes for certain types of buildings
equipment. These delays can impact search,
or those with a fire alarm system; others give
rescue, and suppression efforts. If the area
the code official the ability to require them
is easy to negotiate by foot, firefighters can
when appropriate. In some jurisdictions,
move relatively quickly.
several sets of keys must be provided. Also,
keys can be color coded for their specific
Obstructions and hazards are often found
use — such as access gates, elevators, fire
around buildings that may hinder firefighter
command center, and special hazard areas
access. These include fences, landscaping,
(for example, swimming pools).
vehicles, power lines, merchandise,
32
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
responders may also desire to coordinate their
primary planned entry with features such as
fire lanes (see Chapter 3), fire hydrants (see
Chapter 4), key boxes (see previous section),
fire department connections (see Chapter 10),
and/or the fire alarm annunciator (see Chapter
11). Conversely, responders may not want
too many features clustered near the same
entrance, depending upon standard operating
procedures (for example, a second-due engine
company may be assigned to supply a fire
Figure 6.2. A key box and sign (upper left)
next to a building entrance.
department connection).
Any feature that helps speed entry into the
building will facilitate emergency operations —
especially those that make forcible entry
unnecessary. One example is a feature that
unlocks main entrance doors automatically
upon fire alarm system activation.
Conversely, any feature that restricts firefighter
entry should be avoided. Examples include
fixed features over windows (figure 6.4).
Figure 6.3. A key box on a brick pedestal. In this
complex, key boxes are located next to each fire
hydrant rather than at each entrance.
When building owners have the option
of installing listed key boxes, they
should weigh the cost against the risk of
firefighters needing to force entry into their
buildings along with any resulting damage.
Knowledgeable designers and code officials
can help educate building owners on the
benefits of key boxes.
Figure 6.4. The glass panels and sun screens
Entry Points
surrounding this building’s exterior walls would
The primary fire service entry point should be
make exterior entry difficult.
designated early in the planning and design of
First arriving firefighters will often base their
a building. This may or may not be the main
point of entry on which windows have fire
occupant entrance/exit. One good location
or smoke venting from them. In most cases,
may be where a permanent security station
entrances that serve any particular window
is located — so the security staff can provide
will be readily apparent from the outside. If
information to arriving firefighters. Emergency
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
33
it is not obvious which doors provide access
Room and Floor Designations
to various building areas, signs or diagrams
Coordination of floor and room designations
outside each entrance door could eliminate
between all features is crucial. These
confusion and save valuable time. The
features include stairs, elevators, fire alarm
information on these signs should also be
annunciators, building information signs or
provided to the fire service for pre-incident
directories, public address systems, and all
planning (discussed further in Chapter 13).
pre-incident planning documents. Consistent
designations will avoid confusion, especially
In multi-tenant buildings, such as shopping
during time-sensitive emergency operations.
centers and malls, tenants usually have rear
Keep in mind that responders to emergency
exit or loading doors that firefighters use
incidents unrelated to fire (such as spills or
for access. Often these doors look alike,
emergency medical calls) would not have the
making it hard to correlate a given door with
benefit of directions provided by a fire alarm
a particular tenant. This is solved by labeling
annunciator, if available.
rear doors on the outside with the tenant’s
name, address and/or suite number, in a size
All numbering of floors and rooms should
legible from the firefighters’ vantage point
be easily readable and make common sense,
(figure 6.5). Updating these signs as tenants
even for those unfamiliar with the building.
change is important.
Confusing signage will delay emergency
operations (figure 6.6).
Figure 6.6. A confusing room number sign.
Figure 6.5. A rear tenant door in a shopping
Floor numbering is particularly important
center labeled with the address, suite number,
and tenant name.
for firefighter safety. Firefighters prefer to
approach a fire from below because heat and
Any door that appears to be functional
smoke normally rise. The numbering scheme
from the outside, but is unusable for any
should be intuitive, even in situations when
reason, should have a sign reading “DOOR
visibility is low and when stair level signage
BLOCKED” or similar wording. The lettering
is not available. In such situations, firefighters
size should be legible from the firefighters’
may need to count stair levels to keep track of
vantage point. If these doors are properly
the floor they are on.
marked, firefighters will not waste time trying
to gain entry through them.
Access via stairs is addressed in the Stairs
section of this chapter, below.
34
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Building floors should be numbered
the primary occupant or visitor entrance.
beginning at the main entry point. If the
Consultation with emergency responders is the
ground-level floor is designated as “ground”,
only way to determine their primary entrance.
“lobby”, or anything other than “first
In buildings with many rooms or suites
floor”, then the next higher level should be
designated as second, and so on. Confusion
(such as apartments, hotels, and offices),
room designation schemes should make
arises when first floor designations are used
for upper levels (figure 6.7). For example,
it easy to find specific room numbers or to
determine which direction to travel. Code
in a five-story building where the floors are
designated G, 1, 2, 3, and 4, a fire on the level
officials and responders may have specific
preferences. One preference could be
designated as 2 could be reported from the
numbers progressing higher or lower as you
outside to be on the third floor. This could be
travel along a corridor; another could be even
dangerous as well as confusing if firefighters
numbers on one side of the corridor and odd
inadvertently make their way above the fire.
numbers on the other side. An example of
a potentially confusing numbering scheme
is one which proceeds in a circular fashion
around the perimeter of a corridor; at any
given point in such a corridor, the direction to
specific room numbers would not be clear.
Where possible, room numbering should
be consistent from floor to floor (i.e., rooms
212, 312, 412, etc. are located directly on top
of one another. This is especially important
where suites are similar such as hotels or
Figure 6.7. An elevator car panel in a building with
apartments. Firefighters often investigate
both a lobby level and first floor above it.
lower rooms or suites to determine their
layout prior to initiating fire attack on a
Another example of a confusing numbering
similar unit above. Where rooms or suites
arrangement is one with arbitrary floor
vary in size, consistent floor-to-floor
numbers. For example, a hotel that starts
numbering could mean skipping numbers on
numbering at a high number — say floor 20 is
some floors.
the first floor, making floor 25 the fifth floor,
and so on. Conversely, a hotel above another
Buildings with several wings introduce
occupancy may restart numbering on an
further challenges to room numbering.
upper floor — floors 1 through 3 may be a
One way to handle this is to reserve certain
mall and a hotel above starts numbering at 1
number ranges for each wing (i.e., rooms 1
again on the fourth floor. Hotels sometimes
through 50 for wing A and rooms 51 through
also skip 13 when numbering floors. Great
100 for wing B). Another approach would be
confusion can arise in such circumstances
a four-digit number scheme where the first
with fire reporting (as in the previous
digit indicates floor, the second indicates
paragraph) or fire command located on the
wing, and the third and fourth indicate
exterior while crews operate on the interior.
room or suite. For example, designation
9233 would mean floor 9, wing 2, room 33.
Where entry points exist on multiple levels,
Buildings with 10 or more floors would need
consider starting the floor numbering at the
more digits.
primary fire service entrance even if it is not
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
35
Interior Access
consistent with those in the stairs, elevators,
and fire alarm annunciator. Designations
Locking arrangements can hinder or facilitate
within floors should be descriptive of location
firefighter entry. For example, stair doors
in addition to the name of the tenant. Orient
may all be unlocked from the inside, may
the building direction and text in the same
all unlock automatically upon fire alarm
direction as the viewing angle (figure 6.8).
activation, or selective re-entry may be
provided at certain levels. Special door-
Schematic floor plans showing the building
locking arrangements such as controlled
layout and fire protection systems can
access or delayed egress locks may need
assist the fire service. In buildings with
special approvals or permits from code
fire command centers, the plans should
officials. Locking arrangements should be
be located there. In other buildings, these
carefully coordinated with egress schemes
plans may be locked inside the fire alarm
and voice alarm systems (see Chapter 11).
annunciator panel or control panel. Copies
of these plans should also be provided to
the fire service for pre-incident planning
(discussed further in Chapter 13).
Stairs
Stairs, especially those enclosed with fire-
rated construction, are the primary means
for firefighter access to above- and below-
grade floors of buildings. In some cases,
stairs serve the roof level — a feature that
greatly facilitates roof access for tasks such
as vertical ventilation of heat and smoke.
Figure 6.8. A building diagram with the building
features oriented properly but the text turned
90 degrees from the viewing angle.
Large, unusual, or complex buildings
present a challenge to maneuvering and
locating specific areas. Building directory
signs with room/tenant numbers, and
graphic directories of tenant/agency layout
can assist the public (figure 6.8). The
same diagrams may assist firefighters.
They will be of additional assistance if
they include information such as stair and
elevator identifiers, fire protection system
information, and other fire protection
features (see the Graphic Displays section of
Chapter 11 for a full list of possible features).
Directories should contain features to assist
unfamiliar users with orientation, such as
road names or a compass point. The floor
Figure 6.9. A stair identification sign.
label designations on the directory must be
36
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Identification signage inside stairs at every
level (figure 6.9) is a common provision in
building and fire codes. These signs assist
both occupants and firefighters. The exact
information required on the signs varies
according to the specific code.
Information that could be included on such
signs includes the stair identifier, floor level,
terminus of the top and bottom, discharge
level, and direction to exit/discharge.
Emergency responders may prefer a
specific type of stair identifier (numerical
Figure 6.10. Signs outside a stair discharge door
indicating fire service access (right) and the levels
vs. letter). The floor level designations must
served by the stair (left).
be consistent with the elevators, building
directories, and fire alarm annunciators.
The illuminated exit signs that should be at
A directional indicator (arrow or chevron)
stair entry doors help facilitate firefighter
should also be provided, especially where
egress. Floor-level exit marking will help if
upward travel is required to the discharge
the exit signs are obscured by smoke.
point. It is important that these signs be
located at approximately adult eye level and
Stair Capacity
be visible with the stair door open or closed.
Building and fire codes require that stairs
Stair signs in stairs that lead to a flat or low-
accommodate exiting occupants. Fire service
pitched roof should also indicate roof access.
personnel who may use the stairs are not
This can be identified as “fire service access
typically factored into egress capacity
to roof” or similar wording — to prevent
calculations. When occupants are still exiting
the public from mistaking the roof for a safe
and firefighters are using the same stairs to
way out. Signs in stairs without roof access
enter the building (known as counter-flow),
should indicate “no roof access” or similar
both occupant evacuation and firefighter
wording.
access may take longer. This situation can be
addressed by factoring the counter-flow into
In hotels or other buildings with room or
egress analysis — in particular for buildings
suite numbers, stair signs could also include
with floors beyond the reach of available fire
the room or suite numbers most directly
service ladders.
accessed by each stair on every level, (i.e.,
second floor of stair 3 has direct access to
Furthermore, in most cases, stair capacity
rooms 202 through 256). The latter signage
is calculated based on the floor with the
would be extremely important where certain
highest occupant load. Typically, stairs are
stairs provide no access to some sections of
not widened as one travels in the direction of
the building.
egress unless the stairs converge from both
above and below. This approach assumes
Some stairs discharge directly to the outside
that people will evacuate in a phased manner,
and others discharge at interior locations.
beginning with the floor(s) closest to the fire’s
The exterior of all stair discharge doors,
origin. In an immediate general evacuation,
whether interior or exterior, should also be
or when people from unaffected areas
labeled so that firefighters can quickly locate
choose to evacuate, the increased occupant
them for access to other floors (figure 6.10).
flow may slow evacuation.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
37
Both of these bottlenecks will be made
Firefighters are especially dependent on
worse as the height of the building increases.
elevators in high-rise buildings. Loss of
Furthermore, total evacuation is an increasing
elevators due to a power outage was cited as a
consideration due to major emergency
factor in the 1991 Meridian Plaza high-rise fire
events such as terrorism and natural
in Philadelphia, which killed three firefighters.1
disasters. A designer may encounter these
Phase 1 of elevator emergency operation
issues on projects for large, high-security, or
high-profile facilities. Egress delays caused
consists of a recall system that sends
elevators to a designated primary level — with
by either counter-flow or total evacuation can
be addressed with additional egress capacity
the intent being that this occurs before a fire
can affect its safe operation. The recall occurs
by means of additional stairs, widened stairs,
manually upon activation of a keyed recall
or properly designed and installed occupant
switch (figure 6.11) at the designated level or
evacuation elevators.
automatically upon activation of detectors in
Another solution to the counter-flow issue
certain areas. These areas typically include
is to provide an additional stair. This gives
elevator lobbies, machine rooms, machinery
the fire service more flexibility to choose
space, and hoistways (if the hoistways have
one of the stairs for firefighting while
sprinklers). If a detector is activated on the
the remaining stairs are used solely for
designated primary level, the elevator cars
occupant evacuation. Some codes require
are automatically sent to an alternate floor
an additional stair in buildings over a certain
level. In either case, the elevators are rendered
height; this is an outcome of a National
unavailable to building occupants. They
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
remain at the recall level with doors open,
recommendation regarding counter-flow
so the fire service can quickly determine that
following the 9/11 terrorist attacks.
they are clear of occupants and then use
them in a manual control (Phase 2) mode.
Owners or operators of existing high-security
Coordinate with both code officials and
or high-profile facilities may incorporate full
emergency responders regarding which levels
evacuation into their emergency planning
to designate for primary and alternate recall.
without considering any increase in egress
capacity. Code officials should look for such
situations.
Elevators
Elevators have traditionally not been used
for occupant evacuation. Two exceptions
are when trained operators are available to
evacuate occupants with special needs or
where special features are incorporated to
make some elevators safe for occupant use
during an emergency (known as occupant
evacuation elevators).
Building and fire codes typically require
Figure 6.11. An elevator lobby switch for
elevators to be designed for fire service use,
manual fire service recall.
in two phases of emergency operations. The
installation standard used throughout the
1. Federal Emergency Management Agency,” Special Report:
country for elevators is ANSI A17.1, Safety
Operational Considerations for Highrise Firefighting”, USFA-
TR-082, April 1996.
Code for Elevators and Escalators.
38
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
The designated recall level is usually the
shutdown. For example, if heat detectors
ground or entry level. This will facilitate
mounted next to each sprinkler head are used
rapid firefighter access. For buildings with
to activate the shutdown feature, consider
entrances on multiple levels, designers and
both their temperature rating and sensitivity
code officials should consult emergency
relative to the sprinklers. Note that in many
responders about the entrance firefighters
cases sprinklers may be omitted from these
intend to use initially. The fire service may
areas, thereby eliminating this as a potential
also prefer to coordinate the designated
cause of firefighter entrapment.
recall level with the location of the fire
alarm annunciator, fire control room, and/
Detectors in the elevator machine rooms,
machine spaces, or hoistways trigger
or the sprinkler/standpipe fire department
separate and distinct visible indicators
connection(s).
at the fire alarm control unit and the fire
Phase 2 emergency operation permits the
alarm annunciator. These indicators notify
fire service to use the elevators under their
firefighters that the elevators are no longer
manual control (figure 6.12). This phase
safe to use, and they also provide some
overrides all automatic controls, including the
warning time prior to the shutdown feature
Phase 1 recall.
that is required with sprinkler protection.
In addition, visual warning signals with fire
helmet symbols are provided in elevator
cabs — these flash to warn firefighters when
an elevator problem is imminent.
Fire service access elevators are those
specifically designed and designated for
use by emergency responders. These
elevators open onto fire service elevator
access lobbies that provide a safe staging
area for firefighters to conduct operations
or for occupants to await assistance (figure
6.13). These lobbies have access to both an
Figure 6.12. Elevator cab controls for
elevator and an exit stair with a standpipe;
Phase 2 firefighter operation.
this increases the access and fire attack
Automatic power shutdown is a standard
options available to firefighters. The lobbies
feature for elevators that have fire sprinklers
are also fire-rated and doors to the corridor
located in their machine rooms, machine
or other floor areas have viewing panels to
spaces, or hoistways. The intent is that
allow both firefighters and occupants to see
shutdown occurs prior to, or upon, the
conditions on the opposite side of the doors.
discharge of water; this precludes water
Other features are incorporated to increase
affecting the elevator circuits or braking
reliability - for example, hardened shaft
system. Consider methods that will reduce
enclosures, water infiltration protection, and
the chances that emergency responders
a prohibition of sprinklers in the hoistway,
will be inadvertently trapped by such a
machine room, or machinery space.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
39
Utility and Equipment Identification
A routine function in any advanced fire
suppression operation is to control (usually
shut down) utilities to minimize hazards to
firefighters. Making utilities easy to locate
and identify will speed firefighters’ progress.
Electric, gas, and other fuel controls should
be located either in dedicated rooms with
marked exterior entrances (figure 6.14), or at
exterior locations away from openings such
as windows or doors. Several paragraphs in
OSHA’s electrical standards mandate signage
for electrical rooms, switchgear, substations,
and other equipment. OSHA’s Specifications for
Accident Prevention Signs and Tags standard
covers signs to be used within buildings to
protect workers, including firefighters.
Figure 6.13. A section view of fire service access
elevator lobbies. Figure excerpted from the 2012
Washington, DC: International Code Council.
Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved.
Firefighters regularly respond to elevator-
related emergencies such as civilians trapped
in elevator cars. In some cases, the entrapped
person(s) may be experiencing a medical
or psychiatric emergency. Properly-trained
firefighters can interact with elevator systems
to mitigate such incidents. A standard
elevator key has been developed to increase
Figure 6.14. A room with signage indicating
(top to bottom), the main electric service, the
consistency between buildings. Labeling
location of a secondary electric service, and the
elevator machine rooms or machinery
fire alarm system control panel.
spaces and indicating their locations on fire
alarm annunciators will facilitate access.
Examples of such equipment include main
Communication with both emergency
water service, sprinkler or standpipe control
responders and elevator code authorities
valves, fire pumps, electric service, switchgear,
may be necessary for a full understanding of
generators, and air handling equipment.
proper procedures.
Labels on rooms containing this equipment
will facilitate rapid access. Signage should be
legible from the firefighters’ vantage point.
Marking of fire protection system devices
is discussed in more detail in Chapters 8
through 12.
40
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Questions to Ask - Firefighter Access
■■
Does the terrain and landscaping around the building facilitate firefighting operations?
■■
Are all stakeholders aware of which entrance is designated as the primary fire service
entry point and which features should be located there?
■■
Are key boxes required? Desired? At what location(s)? Which keys should they contain?
How many sets? Must they be color-coded by use?
■■
Are floor levels designated sensibly such as limiting “first floor” designations to
ground levels?
■■
Are floor designations coordinated between stair signs, elevators, building directories,
and fire alarm annunciators?
■■
Are interior rooms labeled or numbered in an organized way to make them easy to find?
■■
Will signage be beneficial at limited access entrances?
■■
Are building directories needed at entrances? Should fire protection features be included?
■■
Are exterior entry doors labeled, especially rear or secondary entries?
■■
Will floor-level exit signs be needed?
■■
Are blocked doors provided with exterior warning signs?
■■
Are stair identification signs provided in each stair? Must stair identifiers be numbers
or letters? Does each sign indicate whether or not roof access is available? Must room,
tenant, or suite numbers served by each stair be shown?
■■
Are stair discharge doors marked on the discharge side?
■■
For unusual facilities or those which may need total evacuation, should firefighter
access be augmented with widened stairs, additional stair(s), or dedicated stairs?
■■
Are elevators designed with recall features? Firefighter safety features? Standard
elevator keys?
■■
Must elevator door keys or Phase II operation keys meet any specific local requirements?
■■
Must fire service access elevators and lobbies be provided for fire attack staging areas?
■■
Are rooms containing utility shutoffs, building service equipment, and fire protection
equipment properly identified?
Resources
■■
IFC and IBC
■■
NFPA 1 and 5000
■■
Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Human Behavior in Fire
■■
ANSI A17.1, Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators
■■
NFPA 72, Fire Alarm Code
■■
NFPA 170, Standard for Fire Safety and Emergency Symbols
■■
OSHA Standard Specifications for accident prevention signs and tags, 29 CFR 1910.145
■■
OSHA Electrical standards, 29 CFR Part 1910, Subpart S
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
41
CHAPTER 7
HAZARDS TO FIREFIGHTERS
Several building features present unique or
unexpected hazards to firefighters. Designers
and code officials can mitigate some but
not all hazards that firefighters face (figure
7.1). This chapter discusses the hazards and
mitigation methods over which designers
and code officials may have some control.
Figure 7.2. A sample sign for a building
marking system. Diagram excerpted from the
2012 International Fire Code and Commentary,
Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All
rights reserved. [www.ICCsafe.org].
More detailed information can be placed
in a locked cabinet easily accessible
to firefighters (figure 7.3) or in the Fire
Command Center (see Chapter 11). Include
the building information listed above as well
Figure 7.1. A firefighter bailing out of a building
as more detailed materials such as:
after running out of air.
■■
Building schematic plans
Building Information
■■
Occupancy details such as occupant load
■■
Hazardous material information (see the
Several systems exist for exterior signage
following section)
that contains building information specifically
■■
Hazardous operations such as MRI machines
for firefighters. One is shown in figure 7.2;
■■
Building service and fire protection equipment
NFPA 1 contains another. Information that
■■
Facility contact persons
could be included on such a sign include
■■
Special occupant needs
construction type, presence of lightweight
construction, contents hazard level, presence
of fire sprinkler systems (full or partial),
presence of standpipe systems, occupancy
type, life safety issues, any special hazards
present, and specific tactical considerations.
Emergency responders must determine the
appropriate tactical considerations, which may
include conditions under which interior fire
attack should not be undertaken. Signs should
be highly visible, resistant to weather, and
mounted at the main fire service entry point.
Figure 7.3. A cabinet containing building
fire safety information for the fire service.
The cabinet is conveniently located just
below the fire alarm annunciator.
42
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Fire codes can list information to be provided
on a Building Information Card. This can be
an actual card or in electronic format. The
latter makes the information very easy to
access and read. The card can be located
at a fire alarm annunciator, in a separate
enclosure (see figure 7.3), or in a fire
command center, if provided.
The preferred location for building information
may be just inside or just outside the main fire
service entry point. If the annunciator panel
POSTED BY CLEVELAND DIVISION OF FIRE
has adequate capacity, it can serve as the
DATE POSTED:
DATE LAST INSPECTED:
POSTED BY:
INSPECTED BY:
cabinet for building information.
HAZARDS:
Figure 7.4. A vacancy status sign that warns
Vacant buildings pose particular risks for
firefighters that a building is unsafe to enter.
firefighters. They are often in a deteriorated
Space at the bottom of the sign is for information
state and are sometimes structurally
on specific hazards.
unstable. However, vacant does not
necessarily mean unoccupied because such
For any of the building information
buildings may attract those seeking shelter
approaches in this section, information
or a place to perform illicit activities. These
must be updated when any changes occur.
aspects complicate the decision regarding
Incorrect information can be more dangerous
whether to attempt an interior fire attack or to
to firefighters than a lack of information.
fall back to an exterior attack.
Initial information and any updates should
also be shared with the fire service for pre-
Signage to quickly identify the condition
incident planning, which is discussed further
of vacant buildings can provide critical
in Chapter 13.
information to factor into this decision. Such
signage was recommended after a 2012
Hazardous Materials
Philadelphia fire that killed two firefighters.
Several federal agencies regulate hazardous
The signage should include a highly-visible
materials (HAZMAT) within or near buildings,
symbol and any specific hazards such as
including the Occupational Safety and Health
holes in roofs or floors, missing stairs or
Administration (OSHA), the Environmental
steps, and unsafe fire escapes (figure 7.4).
Protection Agency, the Department of
Homeland Security, and the Bureau of
Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives. At
the local and state levels, regulation is usually
handled under the auspices of a fire code
and its enforcement system and may include
permitting and associated requirements.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
43
HAZMAT information and compliance is
OSHA’s Hazard Communication standard
normally handled by facility management.
contains a HAZMAT marking system that
Building codes typically require designers
is based on the United Nations’ Globally
to report maximum quantities of certain
Harmonized System. The numerical
hazardous materials during the initial building
designations are in reverse order of those in
permit application. In some cases designers
NFPA’s system. A comparison of these two
and code officials may have information
approaches showing OSHA’s pictograms
on hazardous materials due to the need to
provide features such as fire-rated barriers,
HazComm_QuickCard_Pictogram.html.
fuel tank containment, or special protection
Processes or equipment hazardous to
systems. Designers and code officials
firefighters should also be labeled. Examples
should be aware of the following aspects
include MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
of hazardous materials for situations when
or NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance)
they can work with building owners and
machines, operations with flash fire
emergency responders to facilitate pre-
or explosion potential, and hazardous
incident planning:
atmospheres. Signage is appropriate
■■
HAZMAT management plan
outside the entrances of spaces containing
■■
HAZMAT information statement,
such processes or equipment. OSHA’s
inventory, or manifest
Specifications for Accident Prevention
■■
Facility emergency contact or liaison
Signs and Tags standard covers signs for
■■
HAZMAT marking
various hazards to protect workers, including
■■
Flammable liquid or gas tank approval
firefighters.
■■
Permits needed for any HAZMAT
Accurate HAZMAT information is vital
One HAZMAT marking system that has been
for firefighters. Hazardous materials and
used for several decades is outlined in NFPA
processes change regularly and current
704, Standard System for the Identification
information enables better decision-making
of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency
during an emergency incident.
Response. NFPA 704 symbols (figure 7.5)
contain numerical designations for the
Lightweight Construction
severity of health hazards, flammability, and
Lightweight structural components such as
instability. They also have space for special
trusses, wood I-beams, and bar joists are
hazards such as water-incompatible material.
routinely used in construction to span wide
areas and minimize the need for vertical
supports, reducing both material and
construction costs (figure 7.6). Under ordinary
conditions, these components work well and
building codes have permitted them for many
years. However, lightweight components
often fail suddenly and catastrophically
during fires. For example, wood and
metal trusses are made of interdependent
members that can all fail if one member fails.
Adjacent trusses, in their weakened state,
are then unable to carry the additional load
Figure 7.5. An NFPA 704 symbol.
and these can also fail in quick succession.
44
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Even relatively small fires can cause failures
depending on the fire’s specific location in
relation to the lightweight members.
Figure 7.7. The building on the right is being
constructed with wood trusses. The adjacent
finished building shows no indication from
the exterior that wood trusses were used in its
construction.
Figure 7.6. Steel bar joists.
Many firefighters have been killed in
collapses attributed to lightweight
Lightweight wood structural members
construction members since the 1970s. It is
such as trusses (figure 7.7) and I-beams,
extremely hard for firefighters operating at a
sometimes called engineered wood products,
fire with lightweight members to predict the
are combinations of smaller components
time or extent of a collapse (figure 7.8). They
that form floor or roof assemblies.2 These
typically cannot see how many members are
are used as an alternative to the traditional
affected, which components, and to what
solid (dimensional) lumber joists that would
extent. When lightweight members become
burn through more slowly and likely provide
unstable, they exhibit little or no warning
additional time for fire operations before
signs of imminent collapse. Little or no time
collapse. Lightweight members have less
will be available for firefighters below or
mass in terms of extra wood not needed for
above such construction to evacuate or to be
structural stability. The members therefore
rescued. As a result, incident commanders
have reduced inherent ability to provide
and/or safety officers typically consider the
advance warning of collapse while under
presence of these members in their incident
attack from fire. Also, the higher surface
risk analysis.
area-to-volume ratio of trusses compared
to joists allows trusses to burn more quickly
than traditional lumber. In addition, the metal
gusset plates that hold lightweight wood
components together may fail suddenly as
fire consumes the wood in which the gusset
teeth are shallowly embedded. A similar
outcome may occur with components glued
together with adhesives.
Figure 7.8. Wood trusses after an attic fire.
Marking buildings that contain lightweight
structural members makes this information
2. Some engineered wood products replicate heavy timber
immediately available to the fire service.
structural members and have inherent fire resistance. The
New Jersey requires a truss marking system
discussion here is limited to lightweight engineered wood
products.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
45
(figure 7.9) as a direct result of the deaths
not already required. Sprinkler protection
of five firefighters in Hackensack in 1988.3
of combustible concealed spaces is an
Florida enacted a similar law after the deaths
important feature for firefighter safety. After
of two firefighters.4 Other jurisdictions have
lightweight construction became prevalent,
similar requirements.
several codes expanded residential sprinkler
system requirements - partly justified by the
need for improved firefighter safety.
Shaftways
Vertical shafts within buildings sometimes
have exterior openings accessible to
firefighters. These doors or windows should
be marked on the exterior (figure 7.10). This
indicates to firefighters that this is an unsafe
entry point (figure 7.11) and to make entry at
other locations.
Figure 7.9. New Jersey truss building
Figure 7.10. Exterior shaftway marking.
identification emblems.
One approach to protect firefighters in
buildings with lightweight construction is
to cover the lightweight members with a
protective layer of gypsum board. Alternative
methods of protection are available, but
designers must ensure that such methods
are listed and approved. Model codes have
expanded this approach to protect firefighters
in all residential buildings, including one- and
two-family dwellings.
Figure 7.11. Interior view of an elevator shaft
Wherever lightweight construction
with windows.
techniques are used, serious consideration
should be given to providing sprinkler
Often interior openings to shafts are readily
protection throughout the building, if it is
identifiable. For example, ordinary elevator
3. New Jersey Division of Fire Safety, NJAC 5:70 - 2.20(a)1 and 2.
doors are not likely to be mistaken for
4. Aldridge/Benge Firefighter Safety Act, Florida state Bill
anything else. However, shaftway marking
H727, 2008.
46
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
is important for other interior shaft openings
causing injury or even a fall from the roof.
that could be mistaken for ordinary doors.
Ways to mitigate this hazard include brightly-
One example would be a ventilation shaft
colored markings or a guard or equipment
with full-size doors rather than access panels.
below the obstruction (figure 7.13) to preclude
firefighters from contacting it.
Rooftop Hazards
Skylights
The guy wire within the identified envelope requires
protection from roof obstructions in accordance with
Skylights are convenient places for firefighters
Section 316.4.
to ventilate roofs (figure 7.12). However, a
firefighter could inadvertently fall through a
skylight when it is obscured by smoke or snow.
In 2015, a Colorado firefighter fell through
a skylight and died several weeks later.
Building owners and managers are required
7
ft.
to take precautions to prevent such falls.
or less
4ft.
30° or less
Figure 7.13. Diagram showing the area needing
protection from overhead obstructions on a roof.
Diagram excerpted from Significant Changes to
the 2012 International Fire Code, 2012 Edition,
Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All
Figure 7.12. Several skylights on a roof.
rights reserved. [www.ICCsafe.org].
OSHA’s Walking-Working Surfaces standard
Energy Conservation and
requires guarding for skylight openings and
Alternative Energy Features
holes. One way to accomplish this is by using
Energy conservation and alternative energy
a screen or cover; however, a firefighter with
features have become very important
protective equipment and tools will likely
components of buildings. Associated
exceed the weight capacity of the screen
technology has evolved rapidly. However,
or cover. Furthermore, skylight covers can
the risks associated with new technology
become brittle over time. For the protection
should be thoroughly considered. Hazards
of firefighters, a protective railing may be a
associated with these features have arisen in
more reliable guard.
several fire incidents.
Obstructions
A 2013 fire in an office building in Wisconsin5
As discussed above, firefighters often
illustrated several such hazards. Concealed
operate on roofs to accomplish tasks. This
spaces insulated with recycled denim
occurs frequently when visibility is limited
material allowed a fire to spread out of
due to darkness or smoke. When cables,
the reach of the fire sprinkler system and
wires, ropes, or other obstructions are
fire service hose lines. The photovoltaic
suspended below the height of firefighters,
system on the roof prevented vertical
firefighters may inadvertently walk into them,
5. “Perfect Storm”, B. Duval, Fire Journal, January/February 2014.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
47
ventilation due to the electrical hazard. As
(large enough for effective ventilation at high
the fire progressed, the photovoltaic system
points on the roof). Such arrangements are
energized the building’s metal roof and wall
addressed in recent fire code revisions.
panels, further complicating firefighting
Photovoltaic panels are often mounted on
efforts. The 18-hour firefighting operation
resulted in a $13 million dollar loss and
roofs supported by lightweight components.
This will compound the issues involving
completely depleted the town’s water supply.
lightweight construction discussed above.
Photovoltaic Systems
Vegetative Roof Systems
Photovoltaic systems (figure 7.14) pose
The same access and ventilation concerns
several challenges to firefighters. The electric
shock hazard is complicated by the fact that
arise when roofs are covered with vegetation.
As with photovoltaic cells, consider space
electricity is usually fed in two directions;
from the photovoltaic cells and from the
for access paths and ventilation locations
(figure 7.15).
electric service or storage batteries. What
looks like a disconnect switch can simply
isolate individual panels or circuits from each
other, leaving both live. In some cases, scene
lighting the fire service uses at night can
provide enough illumination to keep the cells
live. Clear warning signs and circuit marking
can help firefighters operate safely around
such systems, along with effective pre-
incident planning. Several fire and electric
code provisions provide for emergency
responder safety and access.
Figure 7.15. A vegetative roof system with paths
that could be used for access and ventilation.
Maintenance of the landscaping is important
to keep vegetation from drying out and
becoming a fire hazard itself. In addition,
proper maintenance of drainage systems
will prevent overloading the roof. Programs
for such maintenance will help ensure that
maintenance continues on an ongoing basis.
Due to their weight, vegetative roof systems
Figure 7.14. Photovoltaic panels on a roof.
must be supported by substantial roof
construction such as reinforced concrete.
Another consideration is the difficulty to
This construction is difficult or impossible
access and ventilate a roof with photovoltaic
for firefighters to cut for ventilation. Consider
cells. It would be prudent to arrange cells to
built-in vents that are manually operable
provide clear access paths (wide enough to
from the exterior (see the Smoke Control and
accommodate firefighters) and clear areas
Ventilation Systems section in Chapter 12).
48
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Other Features
■■
Obtaining all required permits and
inspections
Energy conservation and alternative energy
■■
Protecting the feature with suitable fire
technology continues to evolve at a rapid pace.
barriers and suppression systems
Stakeholders should discuss features such as
■■
Providing remote alarms
the following to facilitate emergency operations
■■
Providing emergency access for fire
and ensure adequate firefighter protection:
apparatus and/or firefighters
■■
Providing clearly-identified fuel or electric
■■
Wind turbines
shutoffs in safe locations
■■
High-powered antennae
■■
Providing warning signage and
■■
Hydrogen fuel cell power systems
appropriate system diagrams
■■
Battery storage systems
■■
Posting emergency contact information
■■
Nuclear power generation
for owners and technical personnel
■■
High-performance glazing
■■
Sharing information for pre-incident planning
■■
Insulation systems
■■
Training emergency responders to help
General considerations for energy conservation
them operate safety
and alternative energy features that may assist
■■
Maintaining the feature in good working
emergency responders include:
order
■■
Notifying emergency responders when the
■■
Notifying responders before a feature is
feature is removed, relocated, or modified
installed and seeking their guidance
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
49
Questions to Ask - Hazards to Firefighters
■■
Will a building information signage system be needed?
■■
Should a cabinet containing building information be provided?
■■
Will vacancy status signs be needed?
■■
Can HAZMAT information be provided to firefighters?
■■
Will a HAZMAT marking system be needed?
■■
Will lightweight construction signage be needed?
■■
Must lightweight construction be protected using a listed and approved method?
■■
Must exterior shaftway openings and interior shaftway doors be marked?
■■
What precautions are needed to prevent falls through skylights?
■■
Are rooftop obstructions marked or blocked off?
■■
Photovoltaic systems: have signage, circuit marking, access, and ventilation been considered?
■■
Vegetative roof systems: have access, ventilation, and maintenance been considered?
■■
Has firefighter safety been considered when implementing other energy conservation and
alternative energy features?
Resources
■■
IFC
■■
NFPA 1
■■
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code
■■
NFPA 170, Standard for Fire Safety and Emergency Symbols
■■
NFPA 704, Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency
Response
■■
NFPA 1620, Standard for Pre-Incident Planning
■■
NFPA Building Construction for the Fire Service
■■
OSHA Standard Walking-Working Surfaces, Guarding Floor and Wall Openings and Holes,
29 CFR 1910.23
■■
OSHA Standard Specifications for Accident Prevention Signs and Tags, 29 CFR 1910.145
■■
NIST web site containing research on firefighter safety: http://www.nist.gov/fire
■■
NIOSH Publication 2005-132, Preventing Injuries and Deaths of Fire Fighters Due to Truss
System Failures, available at www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2005-132
■■
Fire Protection Research Foundation, National Engineered Lightweight Construction Research
Project report, 1992
■■
Fire Protection Research Foundation, Fire Safety Challenges of Green Buildings, 2012,
building-and-life-safety/rffiresafetygreenbuildings.pdf
■■
National Association of State Fire Marshals, Bridging the Gap: Fire Safety and Green
Buildings Guide available at http://www.firemarshalsarchives.org
■■
Underwriters Laboratories Fire Safety Engineering, Firefighter Safety and Photovoltaic
fireservice/PV-FF_SafetyFinalReport.pdf
■■
Underwriters Laboratories Fire Safety Engineering, Structural Stability of Engineered Lumber
fireservice/NC9140-20090512-Report-Independent.pdf
■■
California State Fire Marshal, Solar Photovoltaic Installation Guide, 2008, available at
■■
FM Global Data Sheet 1-15, Roof Mounted Solar Photovoltaic Panels
■■
FM Global Data Sheet 1-35, Green Roof Systems
■■
ANSO/ASSE A1264.1, Safety Requirements for Workplace Walking/Working Surfaces and
Their Access; Workplace, Floor, Wall, and Roof Openings; Stairs and Guardrail Systems
50
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
insurance carriers or provided voluntarily to
CHAPTER 8
reduce fire insurance premiums for buildings in
SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
which proper sprinkler coverage is provided.
Fire sprinkler systems (figure 8.1) provide
Sprinkler systems should be designed to meet
early fire control or extinguishment. If
an installation standard. This is important for
properly designed, approved, installed,
both occupants and firefighters — whether the
and maintained, sprinkler systems help to
system is mandatory or installed voluntarily.
mitigate the fire hazard to both occupants
NFPA has promulgated several standards for
and firefighters. The importance and
commercial and residential sprinkler systems.
effectiveness of sprinkler systems has been
These standards contain some flexibility in
demonstrated for many years.6 Lack of
portions of the system that may impact the
sprinkler systems, inadequate coverage, or
fire service. This chapter provides guidance to
sprinkler impairments have been cited after
designers so they may exercise this flexibility to
many major fire incidents. For example,
benefit fire service operations.
deficiencies in the sprinkler system of a
Georgia textile recycling plant in 2007 led
Designers and code officials may also refer
to one worker fatality and a challenging
to NFPA 13E, Recommended Practice for Fire
incident for firefighters to control, which
Department Operations in Properties Protected
resulted in the destruction of the plant.7
by Sprinkler and Standpipe Systems. Keep in
mind that any given fire service organization
may follow different standard operating
procedures, and communicating with local
emergency responders is important.
The provisions in this chapter also apply
to similar water-based suppression
systems such as foam-water sprinkler
systems. Standpipe systems (which are
often integrated with sprinkler systems)
are covered in Chapter 9. Fire department
connections for sprinkler systems are
Figure 8.1. A fire sprinkler system.
covered in Chapter 10. Sprinkler designers
should also see Chapters 11 and 12 for special
Building codes, fire codes, life safety codes,
coordination considerations regarding fire
and owner criteria specify when to provide
alarm and smoke control systems.
sprinkler systems. The code is usually a model
code adopted by a jurisdiction, sometimes
For sprinkler systems to be effective, it is
with local amendments. Various sections of
imperative that they are regularly inspected,
the OSHA standards require the installation
tested, and maintained. Impairment programs
of sprinkler systems, or reference standards
and maintenance are covered in Chapter 13.
that contain such requirements. In addition,
sprinkler systems may be required by
Zoning
It is important for sprinkler designers and
fire alarm designers to work together in
6. National Fire Protection Association, Fire Analysis and
Research Division, U.S. Experience with Sprinklers, June 2013.
buildings of any size or complexity. The fire
7. Fire Engineering, Lessons Learned from Unsatisfactory
alarm system will often have an annunciator
Sprinkler Performance: An update on trends and a root cause
discussion from the investigating engineer’s perspective,
to indicate the location of the alarm to the fire
October 2010.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
51
service. Coordination is essential to furnish
the fire service with clear information on the
fire or its location.
The sprinkler piping arrangement will
determine how specific a fire alarm
annunciator is able to indicate water flow
signals. In other than very small buildings, a
separate sprinkler zone should be provided
for each floor level. This will allow the fire
alarm annunciator to indicate the floor level,
directing the firefighters to the correct floor.
Figure 8.3. Some apartment units in this building
span the fourth and fifth floors. Each two-story
As the size of each floor increases, the amount
unit has a single entry door on the fourth floor.
of time it takes firefighters to search a floor
Similar zoning challenges can arise in multi-
to find the fire location increases. Large floor
story lobbies or in buildings where a multi-
levels should be divided into zones (figure 8.2).
level area is adjacent to a one-level area
This accomplishes two things: (1) it allows
with a high ceiling. In such scenarios, it may
the fire alarm to indicate the fire location
be clearer for fire service response if the
more specifically within a floor, and (2) it
sprinklers in the high area were zoned with
limits the system area taken out of service for
the level sharing the same floor level. If you
maintenance, repairs, or renovations.
zone sprinkler piping in terms of floor level
rather than ceiling level (even if this means
additional piping) firefighters will know to
what level they must stretch hose lines.
In buildings with standpipe systems, sprinkler
systems are usually combined with them and
fed by a single water supply. Typically, all
sprinklers would be located downstream from
a zone control valve that will shut off water to
all sprinklers but not to fire hose connections.
This allows the hose connections to remain
available for manual fire suppression during
Figure 8.2. A sprinkler zone control station.
times when one or more sprinkler zones are
The sign on the control valve indicates “first
shut off for any reason, either before or during
floor south” but there is no indication where the
boundary is between south and north.
an emergency incident.
Sprinkler designers should consider
Control Valves
firefighter access when arranging zones. As a
Valves that control sprinkler systems or
case in point, consider an apartment building
specific zones must normally remain open.
in which some individual apartments span
Codes often require them to be supervised
two stories (figure 8.3). If the two-story units
electrically by the fire alarm system (see
can only be accessed from one level, the
Chapter 11) or another method. Electronic
sprinklers in both levels of those units should
supervision can help ensure that valves are
be zoned with the level of entry.
returned to the open position after repair or
maintenance.
52
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Fire service personnel often need rapid
access to water supply control valves. If a
valve is closed when an incident occurs, it
may need to be opened to permit the flow of
water. Conversely, a sprinkler valve may need
to be closed to assist in manual suppression
efforts. At the conclusion of an incident,
valves are turned off as quickly as possible to
limit water damage. This also allows the fire
service units to return to service as soon as
possible to be available for other responses.
Accordingly, careful consideration should be
given to access, signage and proper pre-
incident planning.
Valves can be installed for a variety of
purposes, including main shutoff, zone
(sectional) shutoff, fire pump bypass, pump
testing, draining, and testing. Control valves
are not installed in fire department connection
Figure 8.4. A sprinkler zone diagram showing
(FDC) feed lines; this ensures that this
the outline of three zones.
important backup to the primary water source
can never be shut down easily or inadvertently.
The location and position of a valve will
determine how easily it can be accessed
Labeling each valve clearly to indicate its
during an emergency incident. Some code
purpose avoids confusion. This can be helpful
officials or emergency responders prefer
during an emergency incident and during
that valves be at a height reachable without
repair or maintenance, when a valve can
the need for a ladder. Others prefer that
inadvertently be shut off or left shut. Using
valves be located higher to make tampering
descriptive labels such as “sprinkler system
more difficult.
12th floor” or “pump bypass — normally
closed” are far better than simply “control
On rare occasions, sprinklers will not control
valve.” Some jurisdictions also require color-
a fire as expected — for example, where the
coding of valves or valve handles.
occupancy or storage has changed without
a corresponding upgrade of the sprinkler
If the area fed by a valve is not obvious, an
system. In such scenarios, firefighters may
additional diagram can provide important
need to shut off water to interior systems to
information. For instance, if a floor has
conserve water for hose streams. Properly-
multiple zones, each control valve sign
located exterior valves, such as post indicator
should identify the corresponding zone, such
valves, will be accessible even during a
as “12th floor east” or “zone 5-4.” A diagram
serious fire incident. Wall-mounted valves
of zones and the boundaries between them
should be positioned far enough from
should be mounted adjacent to each valve
windows, doors, or vents (figure 8.5) to
(figure 8.4). This will enable firefighters to
minimize the chances that fire or smoke will
quickly determine which valve controls
make them inaccessible.
each specific area. It will also help prevent
inadvertent maintenance/repair/renovation
related shut-offs of an area not intended to
be disconnected.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
53
Figure 8.5. A wall control valve next to a window.
Fire issuing from this window could prevent
access to the valve.
Interior control valves are best located in fire-
rated stairs (figure 8.6) or fire-rated rooms
Figure 8.7. The sign on this door indicates that a
with exterior entrances. There they will be
sprinkler control valve is located within the room.
both readily accessible to firefighters and
In some cases, sprinkler systems are fed from
protected during a fire event.
two different standpipes or feed mains, in
a dual feed arrangement. This redundancy
may be required in very tall buildings and
other high-risk occupancies. Designers may
also elect this arrangement to provide a
hydraulic advantage when determining pipe
sizes. However, the dual valve arrangement
may add confusion when a system must be
shut down. Cross-reference signs should be
provided at each such valve (figure 8.8) to
indicate the location of the companion valve
that feeds the same system.
Figure 8.6. A sprinkler zone control valve in a
stair enclosure.
When a water supply control valve must be
located in a room, a sign outside the door
helps firefighters to quickly locate it (figure
8.7). If the valve is in a concealed space,
provide a sign outside the access panel - for
example, “ELEVATOR SPRINKLER VALVE
Figure 8.8. A sign near a sprinkler control valve
ABOVE”. If the concealed space is above a
indicating the location of the other valve that
suspended ceiling, the appropriate place for
controls the same system.
the sign is on the fixed ceiling grid, rather
than on a removable ceiling tile.
54
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Some jurisdictions require exterior signs that
have significant unsprinklered areas such as
indicate the locations of interior valves. An
attics and concealed spaces. This is allowed
example of wording is “Sprinkler Control Valve
even if the areas are built with combustible
15 Ft. Opposite this Sign.” The disadvantage
construction materials because they have
of such signs is that they provide valuable
a low rate of fatal fires occurring. However,
information to potential arsonists.
fires have originated in or extended into
attics and concealed spaces from the exterior,
Partial Sprinkler Systems
resulting in major fires with significant
property losses. Buildings with NFPA 13R
Sprinkler systems often provide full coverage
sprinkler systems are limited in height to four
for buildings. In other cases, only a portion
stories; however, they can be large and the
of a building will be protected. Perhaps
type of sprinkler system will not be apparent
only an underground level or high-hazard
from the exterior (figure 8.10). Signage should
tenant has sprinkler protection. Incident
inform firefighters that they are operating at
commanders will factor sprinkler coverage
buildings with residential sprinkler systems.
into their strategy. Accordingly, the locations
One example could be a sign at the FDC
that are sprinklered and unsprinklered in a
indicating “Residential Sprinkler System -
building should be indicated in the building
Partial Coverage” or similar wording.
information or marking system used (see the
Building Information section of Chapter 7)
and on pre-incident plans. Partial system
coverage should also be indicated on the fire
alarm annunciator and by signage at the FDC
(figure 8.9). Conversely, signs indicating full
coverage might be desired for all buildings
that are fully protected.
Figure 8.10. A building with six occupied levels
from this vantage point. However, from a code
standpoint, it is a four-story building because
the top level is a loft and the bottom level is a
basement mostly below grade. Its residential
sprinkler system does not cover the combustible
attic space or the truss spaces between floors.
Residential sprinkler systems installed in one-
and two-family dwellings under NFPA 13D
Figure 8.9. A sign indicating the areas covered by
are also life safety systems with significant
the sprinkler system that is fed by the FDC shown.
unsprinklered areas. However, unlike multi-
The primary purpose of residential sprinkler
family occupancies, they are recognizable and
systems installed in multi-family occupancies
should not necessitate any special signage.
under NFPA 13R is the protection of
occupants’ lives. These systems usually
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
55
Unwanted Alarms
Water flow indicators sense the movement of
water or pressure changes. Their activation
Unwanted sprinkler alarm scenarios
triggers a water flow alarm signal to a fire
involve alarm conditions without an actual
alarm system or remote monitoring location.
emergency. Such nuisance alarms are not
It is important that these devices operate
“false alarms” or malfunctions because the
when water is actually flowing from sprinklers
equipment usually performed as designed.
rather than due to other non-emergency
Proper design, installation and approval
circumstances such as water surges. Devices
can contribute to the reduction of unwanted
such as excess pressure pumps (that maintain
nuisance alarms. This both decreases the
pressure on systems at a higher pressure
hazards to firefighters and keeps them
than the highest expected surge) or retard
available for actual emergency incidents.
chambers (that fill to accommodate expected
surges) help prevent unwanted alarms.
56
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Questions to Ask - Sprinkler Systems
■■
Must each floor be piped in independent zones?
■■
Are floors large enough to be further subdivided into zones?
■■
Are zones arranged with consideration of the fire service access levels?
■■
Are all sprinkler zones coordinated with the fire alarm design?
■■
Will hose connections remain in service if sprinklers are shut down?
■■
Are valves labeled to indicate their specific purpose or area covered?
■■
Are diagrams provided for floors with more than one sprinkler zone?
■■
Should valves be within reach from the floor below or positioned higher?
■■
Are valves located on the exterior where possible?
■■
Are exterior valves located away from doors, windows, and other openings?
■■
Are interior valves located in enclosed stairs where possible?
■■
Are valve rooms and valve access panels labeled?
■■
Are dual-feed systems provided with cross-reference signs?
■■
Is warning signage provided for partial systems?
■■
Are unsprinklered areas indicated on building plans and pre-incident plan
documents?
■■
Have appropriate devices been incorporated to minimize unwanted alarms?
Resources
■■
IFC
■■
NFPA 1
■■
NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
■■
13D, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family
Dwellings and Manufactured Homes
■■
13E, Recommended Practice for Fire Department Operations in Properties Protected
by Sprinkler and Standpipe Systems
■■
13R, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Low-Rise Residential
Occupancies
■■
NFPA 25, Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire
Protection Systems
■■
OSHA Standard Automatic Sprinkler Systems, 29 CFR 1910.159
■■
Fire Engineering, Lessons Learned from Unsatisfactory Sprinkler Performance: An
update on trends and a root cause discussion from the investigating engineer’s
perspective, October 2010.
FIRE SERVICE FEATURES OF BUILDINGS AND FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
57

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Content      ..      1      2      3      ..