NAVAIR 00-80T-112 NATOPS INSTRUMENT FLIGHT MANUAL (15 NOVEMBER 2006)

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

The most common tendency when flying an ILS approach is to “fly” the CDI and GSI. An ILS approach is a basic

instrument maneuver similar to a radar approach. Immediate and smooth corrections should be made on the control

instruments based on aircraft and flightpath performance indications. The importance of precise aircraft control

cannot be overemphasized. Lateral distances in relation to CDI displacement can be considerable, especially at

installations where the distance from the localizer transmitter at minimum altitude may be more than 2 miles. For

example, in the lateral deviation chart of Figure 24-4, a full-scale deviation at 1 mile from touchdown places the

aircraft 617 feet from the centerline. If the CDI was deflected 2_ at a missed approach point 1/2 nm from the end of

this runway, the aircraft would be approximately 400 feet from the centerline. Do not attempt to fly the final approach

with full-scale deflection on the CDI or GSI, as obstruction clearance will not be assured; consideration should be

given to executing a missed approach.

The most critical period of the approach occurs while the pilot is busy maintaining course, glidepath, and airspeed,

and is approaching the published DH. Ensure the altimeter is being included in the cross-check. The DH is the lowest

altitude at which a missed approach will be initiated if sufficient visual reference with the runway environment has

not been established. Perform the missed approach when:

1. At the DH and visual reference with the runway environment is insufficient to complete the landing (runway

or runway/approach lights).

2. Instructed by the controlling agency.

3. A safe landing is not possible.

Figure 24-4. Course and Glideslope Deviation vs. Actual Displacement from Touchdown

24-9

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

If the course warning flag is displayed during the final approach, initiate the

missed approach procedure. If the glideslope warning flag is displayed, the

approach should be flown no lower than the published localizer-only

altitude or, if not published, no lower than circling-minimum altitude for the

aircraft category. Localizer-only approaches are planned for and flown as

a nonprecision approach.

24.3.2 Localizer Approaches

Most Navy aircraft do not have glideslope capability, but may execute an ILS approach as a localizer approach. In

this case, proceed as outlined for a full ILS approach. A localizer approach is a nonprecision approach and the pilot

should execute a missed approach when he has reached the missed approach point and the runway environment is

not in sight.

Note

Many ILS missed approach procedures require the use of VOR; hence,

pilots may have to retune their VOR receiver.

The Localizer-type Directional Aid (LDA) is of comparable utility and accuracy to a localizer, but is not part of a

complete ILS. The LDA will not be aligned with the runway, but the angle of divergence will not exceed 30_.

24.3.3 Simplified Directional Facility (SDF)

The Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) provides a final approach that is similar to that of the ILS localizer and

LDA; however, the SDF may have a wider course width of 6_ or 12_. It does not provide glideslope information. The

SDF transmits on frequencies 108.10 to 111.95 MHz. For the pilot, the approach techniques and procedures used in

the performance of an SDF instrument approach are essentially identical to those employed in executing a standard

no-glideslope localizer approach, except that the SDF course is seldom aligned with the runway and the course may

be wider, resulting in less precision.

24.3.4 Radar Vectors

When being radar vectored to an ILS final, the pilot should retain the radar service until established at a point where

a transition to the published procedure can be made. The controller should establish the aircraft with a 30_ or less

intercept angle to the localizer course at an altitude that will intercept the glideslope before the final approach fix.

When the controller issues the final vector, altitude, and clearance for the approach, the pilot must know his position

in relation to the airfield. If the aircraft is at a range beyond the coverage of the approach chart, maintain the last

assigned ATC altitude until within the area depicted on the approach chart. When within the area depicted on the

approach chart and after intercepting the localizer, the pilot may follow those altitudes depicted on the approach chart

at the specified fixes. Query the controller if there is any doubt concerning position or altitude clearance.

Note

Use radar monitoring service, when available, as an additional source of

information.

ORIGINAL

24-10

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

CHAPTER 25

Radar Approaches

25.1

INTRODUCTION

The word radar is derived from the words radio detection and ranging. Radar equipment determines the distance and

direction of objects by transmission and return of radio waves.

Radar is used in many ways to increase operational effectiveness. One of its principal uses is to provide a precision

approach system for aircraft landing during conditions of restricted visibility and/or low ceilings.

25.1.1 Principles of Radar

The basic principle of radar may be stated in a a single word — reflection. An echo is a simple demonstration of the

reflection of sound waves. A radiated noise strikes a reflecting surface and is returned to its source. The time lag

between the original sound and its echo is directly proportional to the distance the sound must travel. This same

principle applies in the use of radio waves.

The frequency band used contains very short radio waves of ultrahigh or super-high frequency that travel, essentially,

in a straight line and are easily reflected from objects in their path.

Longer radio waves are not as easily reflected; they continue around obstacles and tend to follow the curvature of the

Earth.

A very short radio wave is produced and transmitted in a certain direction in the form of a short pulse lasting from

one-half to several microseconds (millionths of a second). When this pulse strikes a reflecting surface, some of the

reflected waves return to the point of origin, where the energy is picked up by a receiver. Multiplying the time interval

by the velocity of the radio waves and dividing the product by two gives the distance to the reflecting object

(Figure 25-1).

The best means of presenting the return of the echo is by use of cathode-ray tubes, commonly called scopes. With

this type presentation, the object (aircraft) reflecting the radio wave appears as a pip on a scope. Through scope

interpretation, the radar controller determines position, range, and also elevation of the aircraft during a precision

approach.

25.1.2 Radar Traffic Information Service

Radar Traffic Information Service advises pilots of any radar target observed in the proximity that warrants attention.

This service does not relieve pilots of their responsibility to see and avoid. The surveillance radar used by Air Traffic

Control (ATC) does not provide altitude information on aircraft that are not equipped with Mode C. Several factors

influence the availability of radar traffic information services (e.g., weather, controller workload, and traffic volume).

Traffic information is provided to all aircraft operating on an IFR Flight Plan, unless operation in Class A airspace

or the pilot declines service. When receiving Visual Flight Rules (VFR) advisory service, pilots should monitor the

assigned frequency at all times and advise the controller when changing VFR cruising altitude. When the service is

no longer required, advise ATC and change transponder code to 1200.

25-1

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Figure 25-1. Radio Wave Reflection

25.2

RADAR EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION

25.2.1 Equipment

The precision radar approach system displays azimuth, elevation, and range information on the same scope and

enables one operator to closely observe aircraft position during the approach. The scope used for this presentation

is called AZ-EL, for azimuth and elevation. The elevation presentation appears on the upper portion of the scope, the

azimuth on the lower portion. In addition to the glidepath and the runway course-line cursors, range marks are also

electronically traced on the AZ-EL display. These range marks, occurring at

1-mile intervals, are spaced

approximately in logarithmic relationship. The first mile from touchdown on the display occupies a greater distance

than the second mile, and so forth. This has the effect of expanding the display as the aircraft approaches the runway

and provides the controller with increasingly precise indications of the aircraft flightpath.

Most radar units incorporate a Moving Target Indicator (MTI) that is adjustable, allowing only moving targets above

a certain velocity to appear on the scope.

In addition to the radar facility, a complete Precision Approach Radar (PAR) system will have an approved approach

light system, which is necessary to support lowest minimums (Figure 25-2).

25.2.1.1 Limitations of Radar

Radar sets using MTIs are susceptible to radar cancellation speed, commonly called blind speed. This phenomenon

causes momentary loss of the target.

Jet aircraft having small reflective surfaces are difficult to track unless transponders (e.g., IFF) are used.

ORIGINAL

25-2

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Figure 25-2. Typical Radarscopes

Because of the short wavelength used by radar, rain droplets, snow, and the like cause scope clutter. This makes scope

interpretation difficult during heavy rain or other heavy precipitation. Later model radar sets use circular polarization

(a grid placed over the antenna) to help eliminate clutter caused by precipitation. The radar controller uses circular

polarization only if there is a possibility of losing the target in precipitation clutter. With circular polarization, the

controller might unknowingly vector an aircraft through areas of intense precipitation, so the pilot will be advised

of possible flight through precipitation not visible on the radarscope.

25.3

RADAR APPROACH PROCEDURES

25.3.1 Radar Approaches

Radar control is one of the most precise methods used for accomplishing an instrument approach. A radar approach

system consists of Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) and/or Precision Approach Radar (PAR), controllers, and

associated communication equipment. Controllers interpret radar displays and transmit course and glideslope

information to the pilot. As directed, the pilot maneuvers the aircraft to a position from which it can safely land.

Information as to radar availability, frequencies, minimums, glideslope angle, and type of approach can be found in

Flight Information Publications (FLIP). The FLIP terminal approach charts provide runway and airfield pictorial

presentations (i.e., obstructions, approach lighting, length and width of runways, and the relative positions of

navigational aids). When planning for a radar approach, check the en route supplement, terminal charts, and Notices

to Airmen (NOTAMs).

There are three basic types of approaches: the precision approach, the nonprecision (surveillance) approach, and the

Automated Carrier Landing System (ACLS) automatic approach. The precision approach provides the pilot with

precise course, glideslope, and range information. The surveillance approach provides only course and range

information and is classified as a nonprecision approach. Both the precision and nonprecision approaches are divided

25-3

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

into two segments: transition to final, and the final approach segment. The ACLS approach is discussed in the

appropriate NATOPS manual.

25.3.1.1 Transition to Final

The transition to final segment of the approach is controlled by surveillance radar equipment. This segment includes

all maneuvering up to a point where the aircraft is inbound on the final approach course and approximately 8 nm from

touchdown. During the transition to final, the radar controller directs heading and altitude changes as required to

position the aircraft on final approach. Turns and descents should be initiated immediately after instructions are

received. Perform turns by establishing an angle of bank on the attitude indicator, which will approximate a standard

rate turn for the True Airspeed (TAS) flown (not to exceed 30_ of bank). When the aircraft or mission characteristics

dictate very low turn rates, it is advisable to inform the controller. The controller uses this information to assist in

determining lead points for turns and/or corrections.

As lost communication instructions must be noted and understood, and they are not generally available to the pilot

in published form, the controller transmits them. In addition, the controller gives changes in current weather, direction

of landing, runway information, and the latest altimeter setting.

While transitioning to final, at NAS, the pilot is advised to perform a prelanding cockpit check. Perform the check

and review approach minimums, lost communications procedures, final approach airspeed, and approximate initial

rate of descent desired (consider glideslope angle and groundspeed of the aircraft). In addition, use all navigational

receivers to remain position oriented and/or ready to comply with lost communications procedures. Throughout this

segment, the controller will periodically advise you of the aircraft position relative to the airfield. Do not hesitate to

request additional information.

25.3.1.2 Precision Final Approach

The precision final approach starts when the aircraft is within range of the precision radar and contact is established

with the final controller. A precision approach radar system includes two antennas, one scanning vertically and the

other scanning horizontally. The range is limited to 10 miles, azimuth to 20 degrees, and elevation to 7 degrees. The

initial call to the final controller should include the last assigned heading, altitude, and the current status of the gear,

if applicable. The required final approach airspeed and configuration should be set prior to glideslope interception,

and the landing checklist completed in accordance with the appropriate NATOPS flight manual. The controller will

advise the pilot of any change in lost communications procedures. These procedures must be noted and understood.

Upon request, the controller will furnish the pilot with the published decision height.

When the controller advises that the aircraft is intercepting glideslope, adjustment of the power and/or drag devices

is required to establish the predetermined rate of descent. Adjust the pitch attitude on the attitude indicator to maintain

the final approach speed. When the airspeed and glidepath are being maintained, note the power, attitude, and vertical

velocity. Use the values as guides during the remainder of the approach.

If the aircraft is observed to deviate above or below the glidepath, the pilot is given the relative amount of deviation

by use of terms “slightly” or “well” and asked to adjust the rate of descent to return to the glidepath. Correct these

deviations with coordinated pitch and power changes. Maintain a constant airspeed during the approach. When power

changes are required, avoid excessive throttle movements. Corrections should be made immediately after instructions

are given or when deviations from established attitude or performance indications are desired to return the aircraft

to the glidepath.

Accuracy of heading is important for runway alignment during the final approach phase. When instructed to make

heading changes, make them immediately. Instructions to turn are preceded by the phrase “turn right” or “turn left.”

To prevent overshooting, the angle of bank should approximate the number of degrees to be turned, not to exceed a

1/2 standard rate turn. At high final approach speeds, a larger angle of bank may be required to prevent a prolonged

correction, but do not exceed the 1/2 standard rate turn. After a new heading is directed, the controller assumes it is

being maintained. Additional heading corrections will be based on the last assigned heading.

ORIGINAL

25-4

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

If an aircraft is observed by the controller to proceed outside of specified safety zone limits in azimuth and/or elevation

and continue to operate outside these prescribed limits, the pilot will be directed to execute a missed approach or to

fly a specified course unless the pilot has the runway environment (runway, approach lights, etc.) in sight.

Navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation is provided to the pilot until the aircraft reaches the published

Decision Height (DH) (Figure 25-3).

Note

After reaching DH, the precision final controller will continue to provide

course and flightpath information until the aircraft passes over the landing

threshold. The information is strictly advisory in nature.

A missed approach shall be initiated immediately when any of the following occurs:

1. Upon reaching DH with runway environment not in sight.

2. When instructed by the controller when runway environment is not in sight.

3. When directed by the tower, wheels watch, or runway duty officer.

4. When a safe landing cannot be made.

Note

A pilot may execute a missed approach at his/her own discretion at any

time.

Figure 25-3. Precision Approach

25-5

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

25.3.1.3 Surveillance Final Approach

There may be times when the precision radar equipment is inoperative or not available for the landing runway. Under

these conditions, surveillance radar is used to furnish information required to align the aircraft with the approach

runway. As surveillance radar is not as accurate as precision radar and does not provide elevation data, the landing

weather minimums are higher than for precision approaches (Figure 25-4).

Course corrections are not as accurate as those given during a precision approach because of less precise radarscope

presentations. At 1 mile from the landing threshold, the controller will advise the pilot to report the runway in sight

or to perform the missed approach. It is important to remember that the controller cannot observe aircraft elevation

during the surveillance approach.

Surveillance final approach instructions are similar to those received during the precision approach to the point of

establishing the descent. Although no elevation information is provided, on pilot request the controller will give

recommended altitudes each mile. Recommended altitudes decrease 300 feet per mile (approximates a 3_ glideslope).

The pilot should establish a rate of descent that will ensure reaching the Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) at or

before the Missed Approach Point (MAP). If the MDA is reached before the missed approach point, fly the aircraft

at this altitude until the controller advises the pilot the aircraft has reached the missed approach point. Perform the

missed approach when:

1. Visual reference with the runway environment at the MAP is insufficient for landing.

2. Instructed by the controller when the runway is not in sight.

3. A safe landing is not possible.

4. Directed by the tower.

Note

The DH, MDA, and weather minimums for the PAR and ASR approach are

published in the FLIP Terminal Publication. When available, use the

Runway Visual Range (RVR) as the visibility value for straight-in

approaches. Prevailing Visibility (PV) is always used as the visibility value

for circling approaches.

25.3.1.4 No Gyro Approach (Heading Indicator Inoperative)

If the heading indicator should fail during flight, advise the radar controller and request no gyro approach. Perform

turns during the transition to final by establishing an angle of bank on the attitude indicator that will approximate a

standard rate turn (not to exceed 30_ of bank). Perform turns on final approach by establishing an angle of bank on

the attitude indicator that will approximate a 1/2 standard rate turn. If unable to comply with these turn rates, advise

the controller so that the controller may determine lead points for turns and heading corrections. Execute turns

immediately upon hearing the words “turn right” or “turn left.” Stop the turn on receipt of the words “stop turn.”

25.3.1.5 Voice Procedures

The radar approach is predicated entirely upon voice instructions from the controller. During an approach, repeat all

headings, altitudes, and altimeter settings; acknowledge all other instructions unless otherwise advised. During

high-density radar operations, a limiting factor is the communication time available. Keep transmissions brief and

specific, commensurate with safety of flight. Never sacrifice aircraft control to acknowledge receipt of instructions.

ORIGINAL

25-6

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

CHAPTER 26

Global Positioning System (GPS)

26.1

INTRODUCTION

The Global Positioning System

(GPS) is a space-based navigation system that provides highly accurate

three-dimensional navigation information to an infinite number of equipped users anywhere on or near the Earth. The

typical GPS integrated system will provide position, velocity, time, altitude, steering information, groundspeed,

ground track error, heading, and variation.

26.2

SYSTEM OVERVIEW

26.2.1 Signal Accuracy

GPS measures distance by timing a radio signal that starts at the satellite and ends at the GPS receiver. The signal

carries with it data that discloses satellite position and time of transmission and synchronizes the aircraft GPS system

with satellite clocks. There are two levels of accuracy available: Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and Precise

Positioning Service (PPS). Coarse Acquisition (C/A) data can be received by anyone with a GPS receiver. Until

recently, the accuracy of this signal was degraded through the use of Selective Availability (SA). (SA was set to zero

on 1 May 2000, thus greatly improving the accuracy of GPS for civilian [SPS] users.) It has been reported that current

accuracy for SPS users is better than 10 meters horizontal. Precision (P) data can be received only by authorized users

(PPS) in possession of the proper codes. The design specification for PPS GPS dictates 6 meters of accuracy but

specific testing has indicated greater accuracy.

26.2.2 GPS Segments

GPS is composed of three major segments: space, control, and user.

26.2.2.1 Space Segment

The GPS constellation is composed of multiple satellites, the orbits and spacing of which are arranged to optimize

the GPS coverage area.

26.2.2.2 Control Segment

The control segment includes a number of monitor stations and ground antennas located throughout the world. The

monitor stations use GPS receivers to track all satellites in view and accumulate ranging data from the satellite signals.

The information from the monitor stations is processed at the Master Control Station (MCS) and is used to manage

the satellite system.

26.2.2.3 User Segment

The user segment consists of GPS equipment used in a variety of ways: aircraft avionics, surveying equipment,

handheld GPS receivers, etc. GPS equipment uses data transmitted by the satellites to provide instantaneous position

information.

26.2.3 Integrated Systems

Integration of GPS into each aircraft navigation system will vary depending on the mission of the aircraft. GPS can

greatly enhance the performance of an Inertial Navigation System (INS), and the INS, in turn, increases the usefulness

26-1

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

of GPS equipment. INS has the ability to accurately measure changes in position and velocity over short periods of

time using no external signal; however, errors are cumulative and increase with time. GPS can provide a continuous

position update, which allows the INS to calculate error trends and improve its accuracy as time increases. The INS

aids the GPS receiver by improving GPS position predictions between position updates as well as improving system

anti-jam performance. When GPS is not available (due to mountain shadowing of satellites, jamming, or high

dynamic maneuvers), the improved INS will provide the integrated navigation system with accurate position

information until the satellites are back in view or the jamming is over. GPS can also provide in-flight alignment

capability for the INS.

26.2.4 Flight Management System (FMS)

An FMS is an integrated suite of sensors, receivers, and computers, coupled with a navigation database. These

systems generally provide performance and Area Navigation (RNAV) guidance to displays and automatic flight

control systems. Inputs can be accepted from multiple sources such as GPS, Distance Measuring Equipment (DME),

VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR), Localizer (LOC), and Inertial Reference Unit (IRU). These inputs may be

applied to a navigation solution one at a time or in combination. Some FMSs provide for the detection and isolation

of faulty navigation information. When appropriate navigation signals are available, FMSs will normally rely on GPS

and/or DME/DME (i.e., the use of distance information from two or more DME stations) for position updates. Other

inputs may also be incorporated based on FMS system architecture and navigation source geometry.

26.2.5 Required Navigation Performance (RNP)

RNP is intended to provide a single performance standard for aircraft manufacturers, airspace designers, pilots,

controllers, and international aviation authorities. Some RNP procedures will take advantage of improved navigation

capabilities and will result in increased flight path predictability and repeatability. Typically, various sensor inputs

are processed by an RNAV system to arrive at a position estimate having a high statistical degree of accuracy and

confidence. When RNP is specified, a combination of systems may be used, provided the aircraft can achieve the

required navigation performance. Although it has been a goal for RNP to be sensor-generic, this goal is unachievable

as long as the aircraft capability is in any way dependent on external signals. The aircraft navigation system always

consists of specific sensors or sensor combinations and the navigation infrastructure consists of specific systems. The

RNP capability of an aircraft will vary depending upon the aircraft equipment and the navigation infrastructure. For

example, an aircraft may be equipped and certified for RNP 1.0, but may not be capable of RNP 1.0 operations due

to limited Navigation Aid (NAVAID) coverage.

26.2.5.1 RNP Levels

An RNP “level” or “type” is applicable to a selected airspace, route, or procedure. The International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) has defined RNP values for the four typical navigation phases of flight: oceanic, en route,

terminal, and approach. The RNP level or type is a value typically expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the

intended centerline of a procedure, route, or path. RNP applications also account for potential errors at some multiple

of RNP level. U.S. standard values supporting typical RNP airspace are as specified in Figure 26-1. Other RNP levels

as identified by ICAO, other states, and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) may also be used. The applicable

RNP level will be depicted on affected charts and procedures.

ORIGINAL

26-2

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Segment

RNP Level

Primary Route Width (nm) −

Centerline to Boundary

En Route

2.0

8.0 nm (+4.0)

Initial

1.0

4.0 nm (+2.0)

Intermediate

1.0

4.0 nm (+2.0)

Final

0.3

1.2 nm (+0.6)

Missed Approach

1.0

4.0 nm (+2.0)

Departure

1.0

4.0 nm (+2.0)

Figure 26-1. U.S. Standard RNP Levels

26.2.6 Waypoints

RNAV (GPS) approaches make use of both fly-over and fly-by waypoints. Fly-by waypoints are used when an aircraft

should begin a turn to the next course prior to reaching the waypoint separating the two route segments. This is known

as turn anticipation and is compensated for in the airspace and terrain clearances. Approach waypoints, except for

the Missed Approach Waypoint (MAWP) and the Missed Approach Holding Waypoint (MAHWP), are normally

fly-by waypoints. Fly-over waypoints are used when the aircraft must fly over the point prior to starting a turn.

Fly-over waypoints are depicted as a circled waypoint symbol. Overlay approach charts and some early stand-alone

GPS approach charts may not reflect this convention. A Computer Navigation Fix (CNF) is point used for the purpose

of defining the navigation track for an airborne computer system (i.e., GPS or FMS). CNFs are assigned five-letter

names and charted on aeronautical products. These CNFs are not to be used for any Air Traffic Control (ATC)

application, such as holding for which the fix has not already been assessed. CNFs will be charted to distinguish them

from conventional reporting points, fixes, intersections, and waypoints. The CNF name will be enclosed in

parentheses, and the name will be placed next to the CNF it defines. If the CNF is not at an existing point defined by

means such as crossing radials or radial/DME, the point will be indicated by an “X.” The CNF name will not be used

in filing a flight plan or in aircraft/ATC communications. Use current phraseology (e.g., facility name, radial,

distance) to describe these fixes. Unnamed waypoints in the database will be uniquely identified for each airport but

may be repeated for another airport. The runway threshold waypoint, which is normally the MAWP, will be coded

as RW##. The runway threshold waypoint is also used as the center of the Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) on most

GPS approaches. MAWPs not located at the threshold will have a five-letter identifier.

26.2.7 RNAV Leg Types

A leg type describes the desired path preceding, following, or between waypoints on an RNAV procedure. Leg types

are identified by a two-letter code that describes the path (e.g., heading, course, track, etc.) and the termination point

(e.g., the path terminates at an altitude, distance, fix, etc.). Leg types used for procedure design are included in the

aircraft navigation database, but not normally provided on the procedure chart. The narrative depiction of the RNAV

chart describes how a procedure is flown. The “path and terminator concept” defines that every leg of a procedure

has a termination point and some kind of path into that termination point. Some of the available leg types are described

below.

26.2.7.1 Initial Fix

An Initial Fix leg is used only to define the beginning of a route or procedure.

26.2.7.2 Track to Fix

A Track to Fix (TF) leg is intercepted and acquired as the flight track to the following waypoint. Track to Fix legs

are sometimes called point-to-point legs for this reason (Figure 26-2).

26-3

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

26.2.7.3 Direct to Fix

A Direct to Fix (DF) leg is a path described by an aircraft’s track from an initial area direct to the next waypoint

(Figure 26-3).

26.2.7.4 Course to Fix

A Course to Fix (CF) leg is a path that terminates at a fix with a specified course at that fix (Figure 26-4).

26.2.7.5 Radius to Fix

A Radius to Fix (RF) leg is defined as a constant radius circular path around a defined turn center that terminates at

a fix (Figure 26-5).

ALPHA

FLY-BY

TRACK TO FIX

ALPHA

BRAVO

FLY-OVER

BRAVO

Figure 26-2. Track to Fix Leg Type

26.2.7.6 Heading

A Heading leg may be defined as, but not limited to, a Heading to Altitude (VA), Heading to DME range (VD), and

Heading to Manual Termination, that is, Vector (VM).

26.2.8 Course Sensitivity

The Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) sensitivity related to GPS equipment varies with the mode of operation and

the type of equipment. (Refer to your flight manual.) Unlike traditional ground-based NAVAIDs, GPS course

sensitivity is normally linear regardless of the distance from the waypoint. Typically, the following modes provide

the indicated CDI scaling:

ORIGINAL

26-4

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

26.2.8.1 En Route Mode

En route phase, prior to the execution of the instrument approach, the display sensitivity full-scale deflection is 1 times

the RNP value either side of centerline. En route obstacle clearance area is based on the RNP value. Aircrews shall

not assume the primary protected containment for the route of flight en route is ±10 nm (refer to specific aircraft

NATOPS or FMS user’s manual).

26.2.8.2 Terminal Approach Mode

Upon activation of the approach mode, the display sensitivity should smoothly transition from a full-scale deflection

of en route RNP to terminal RNP by 30 nm from the destination airport. Aircrew are reminded that the obstacle

clearance area reduces as the RNP value transitions from en route to terminal. The approach mode must be active to

proceed past the final approach fix on a nonprecision approach.

ALPHA

FLY-OVER WP

DIRECT TO FIX LEG

BRAVO

Figure 26-3. Direct to Fix Leg Type

26-5

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

26.2.8.3 Final Approach Mode

At a distance of 2 nm inbound to the Final Approach Fix (FAF) waypoint, the display sensitivity begins to transition

to a full-scale deflection of 0.3 nm either side of centerline. Some GPS avionics may provide an angular display

between the FAF and Missed Approach Point (MAP) that approximates the course sensitivity of the localizer portion

of an Instrument Landing System (ILS).

26.2.8.4 Missed Approach Mode

When navigation to the missed approach holding point is activated, the CDI display sensitivity transitions back to

terminal area sensitivity (±1 nm).

26.2.9 Navigation Database

Navigation databases supporting GPS equipment certified for en route and terminal operations contain, as a

minimum, all airports, VORs, VORTACs, Non-Directional Beacons (NDBs), and all named waypoints and

intersections shown on en route and terminal area charts, Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs), and Standard

Terminal Arrivals (STARs).

In the terminal area, the database will include waypoints for SIDs and STARs as well as other flight operations from

the beginning of a departure to the en route structure or from an en route fix to the beginning of an approach procedure.

All named waypoints are identified with a five-letter alpha character name provided by the National Flight Data

Center (NFDC). Waypoints unnamed by the NFDC, such as a DME fix, are assigned a five-letter alphanumeric coded

name in the database. (As an example, D234T — This coded waypoint represents a point located on the 234 radial

of XYZ VORTAC at 20 nm. The letter T is the twentieth letter of the alphabet and is used to indicate a distance of

20 nm.)

26.3

RESTRICTIONS ON THE USE OF GPS

26.3.1 Specific Capabilities and Restrictions

Specific GPS equipment capabilities vary widely from aircraft to aircraft; therefore, all pilots must be thoroughly

familiar with the GPS equipment installed in their aircraft, its authorized use, and its limitations. Some USN aircraft

are not capable of performing all of the activities described in this chapter. Aircrews must consult OPNAV 3710.7

series, this manual, wing directives, and the aircraft NATOPS manual to fully determine the capabilities of the aircraft

GPS equipment and restrictions on its use. As per OPNAV 3710.7 series, hand-held GPS receivers shall not be used

for instrument navigation.

26.3.2 Use of GPS Outside of the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS)

GPS use may be further restricted depending on the area of operation. Flight using GPS is not authorized in some

countries. If you plan to use GPS outside the National Airspace System (NAS), check for additional restrictions in

Flight Information Publications (FLIP) General Planning (GP) and Area Planning (AP) documents in your area of

intended operation. The aircrew shall ensure all non-DoD-approved approaches flown outside the U.S. and Canada

using GPS for primary navigation are approved by the Naval Flight Information Group (NAVFIG).

26.3.3 Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)

GPS equipment certified for Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) use must have the capability of verifying the integrity of

the signals received from the GPS constellation. Loss of satellite reception and Receiver Autonomous Integrity

Monitoring (RAIM) warnings may occur due to aircraft dynamics (changes in pitch or bank angle). Antenna location

on the aircraft, satellite position relative to the horizon, and aircraft attitude may also affect reception of one or more

26-7

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

satellites. As the relative positions of the satellites are constantly changing, prior experience with the airport does not

guarantee reception at all times, and RAIM availability should always be checked. The integrity of the GPS signal

is verified by determining if the integrity solution is out of limits for the particular phase of flight, if a satellite is

providing corrupted information, or if there is an insufficient number of satellites in view. When the integrity of the

GPS information does not meet the integrity requirements for the operation being performed, the aircraft GPS

avionics will provide a warning in the cockpit. A GPS integrity warning in the cockpit is equivalent to an OFF flag

on your Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI); your GPS navigation information may no longer be reliable. Refer to

the aircraft NATOPS for specific information regarding your GPS avionics.

26.3.4 Database Requirements

To use GPS for IFR navigation in the terminal area or for GPS nonprecision approaches, the aircraft GPS equipment

must include an updatable navigation database. GPS airborne navigation databases may come from the National

Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) via the mission planning system or from an approved commercial source.

26.3.4.1 Manual Database Manipulation

Manual entry/update of the validated data in the navigation database is not possible; however, this requirement does

not prevent the storage of user-defined data within the equipment.

26.3.5 RNAV in the Terminal Area

Some GPS equipment will provide the capability to use RNAV procedures in the terminal area. Using GPS equipment

as the primary navigation source for RNAV in the terminal area is only permitted if all of the waypoints defining the

route of flight can be retrieved from the aircraft GPS navigation database. GPS primary-source navigation using

user-defined waypoints may not be used after the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) or prior to the termination point of a SID.

GPS equipment may be used to identify the IAF on Instrument Approach Procedures (IAPs) and the termination point

on SIDs.

26.3.6 GPS Approach Restrictions

There are several important operating restrictions when using GPS to fly approaches.

26.3.6.1 Database Restrictions

Instrument approaches must be accomplished in accordance with approved instrument approach procedures that are

retrieved from the FMS database using the current update cycle.

Aircrew should not manually adjust designed RNP values (retrieved from

database), unless operational requirements dictate. Aircrew shall not use

manual RNP values in terminal mode of flight. RNP values other than

standard RNP will be noted on the terminal procedure. Failure to adhere to

design RNP values (retrieved from database) in the terminal mode may

result in a flight violation or mishap.

26.3.6.2 Integrity Monitoring

Instrument approaches must be conducted in the FMS Approach mode, and GPS integrity monitoring (RAIM) must

be available at the final approach fix, as indicated to the pilot by the INTG annunciator being extinguished.

ORIGINAL

26-8

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

26.3.6.3 Alternate Navigation Equipment

The aircraft must have other approved navigation equipment installed and functioning appropriate for the route to

the destination airport and any required alternate. Ground-based facilities necessary for these routes must also be

operational. GPS-overlay and GPS stand-alone approaches may be flown without the need to tune, ident, or monitor

any other NAVAID (though this is not recommended).

26.3.6.3.1 RNAV Procedural Speed Restrictions

Some arrival and departure procedures will have speed restrictions on a specific segment(s) or the entire procedure.

These restrictions ensure the aircraft remains within the obstacle clearance area or has proper track stabilization prior

to the next programmed waypoint.

26.3.6.4 Scaling and Alerting

The GPS navigation system used for the approach shall use scaling and alerting criteria no less restrictive than

RNP 0.3 prior to continuing past the final approach fix. The RNP criteria shall remain for the entire approach.

26.3.6.5 Multiple GPS Receivers

On aircraft equipped with multiple (installed) GPS receivers the aircrew shall use the integrity function for the GPS

receiver being used for navigation. The integrity function of other installed GPS (SPS or PPS) receivers shall not be

used to indicate the integrity of the GPS receiver being used for navigation.

26.3.7 Alternate Airport Restrictions

When an alternate airport is required, it must be served by an approach based on other-than-GPS navigation, the

aircraft must have operational equipment capable of using that navigation aid, and the required navigation aid must

be operational.

26.4

GPS APPROACH NOMENCLATURE

26.4.1 GPS Stand-Alone Approaches

GPS stand-alone approaches are constructed specifically for use by GPS and do not have a traditional underlying

procedure. GPS stand-alone approaches are identified by the absence of other NAVAIDs in the approach title (e.g.,

GPS RWY 35). Current stand-alone approaches will be renamed over time as RNAV (GPS) approaches (e.g., RNAV

RWY [GPS] 35). The Straight-In Minimums on current GPS charts correspond to the Lateral Navigation (LNAV)

Minimums on RNAV charts.

26.4.2 GPS Overlay Approaches

GPS overlay approaches permit pilots to use GPS avionics under IFR to fly existing instrument approach procedures.

Overlay approaches can be identified by the use of “GPS” in the title (e.g., “VOR or GPS RWY 24”).

26.4.2.1 GPS Not in the Title

Some approaches (typically VORs and NDBs) do not have GPS in the title, yet they are coded into the aeronautical

database used by the GPS and are retrievable. These approaches do not qualify as “overlay” approaches, since “OR

GPS” is not in the title. They can, however, be used as a situational awareness tool to back up the pilot at the controls

while flying a conventional approach.

26-9

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

26.4.3 RNAV (GPS) Approaches

The GPS “Stand-alone” and GPS “Overlay” approaches are being replaced by the RNAV (GPS) approach format.

The RNAV (GPS) format is known as a performance-based procedure. The RNP accuracy required to fly these

approaches is RNP 0.3. The minimums section is broken down into sections of LNAV, LNAV/Vertical Navigation

(VNAV), Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance (LPV), and GNSS Landing System (GLS). The LNAV

approaches generally (but not always) have the highest minimums and are flown to a Minimum Descent Altitude

(MDA) much like a traditional VOR or Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN). The LNAV/VNAV section of the

minimums designates the Decision Altitude (DA) and visibility for aircraft approved for Barometric Vertical

Navigation (BARO-VNAV). The LPV section of the minimums designates the Decision Altitude for equipment

performing to the level of Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) specifications. The GLS section of the

minimums is currently designated “N/A” as a placeholder for the GLS. LPV is the only system authorized to occupy

the GLS line.

26.4.4 RNAV (RNP) Approaches

The latest addition to the GPS approach family is the RNAV (RNP) approach also known as Special Aircraft and

Aircrew Authorization Required (SAAAR). These approaches are commonly used to avoid prohibited areas, terrain,

and noise-sensitive areas that require certified aircraft and specific aircrew training. The RNP level required varies

from RNP 0.11 to RNP 0.15 to RNP 0.3. The Naval Flight Information Group is developing SAAAR approaches on

a limited basis for Navy and Marine Corps installations.

26.5

AIRCREW ACTIONS

26.5.1 Preflight

In addition to being intimately familiar with operation of their GPS equipment, pilots need to accomplish several

additional actions prior to flight using GPS.

26.5.1.1 Check NOTAMs

Review Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) by referring to the installation NOTAMs for your destination and any

alternates. GPS satellite outages are issued as GPS NOTAMs using Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) number or Satellite

Vehicle Number (SVN) and can be accessed using the identifier KGPS. It is important to deselect the affected satellite

on your FMS/GPS. This ensures the particular satellite deselected is not used for the navigation solution, RAIM

calculations, or RAIM prediction.

Receiver manufacturers and/or database suppliers may supply “NOTAM” type information concerning database

errors. Pilots should check these sources, when available, to ensure that they have the most current information

concerning their electronic database.

26.5.1.2 File the Appropriate Equipment Suffix

Aircraft navigating using GPS are considered to be RNAV-equipped aircraft and the appropriate equipment suffix

should be included on the flight plan.

26.5.1.3 GPS Equipment Checks

Check GPS ground equipment by following the specific startup and self-test procedures for the GPS receiver or FMS

as outlined in the aircraft NATOPS manual. Check the currency of your database and predicted RAIM available status

for the approach you plan to fly at your Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA).

26.5.2 Terminal Area Operations and Departure

26.5.2.1 Load SID

If a SID is to be flown, load the appropriate SID by retrieving the route from the navigation database. If the SID cannot

be retrieved from the database, then you may not use RNAV procedures to fly it prior to the SID termination point.

ORIGINAL

26-10

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

26.5.2.2 Terminal Sensitivity

When flying a SID using GPS, the pilot must ensure the terminal sensitivity mode is selected to ensure the correct

scaling of the CDI (±1 nm).

26.5.3 En Route Operations

26.5.3.1 Use of Predictive Integrity

While you are en route to your destination, check the expected integrity (RAIM availability) for the planned approach.

If your check indicates the appropriate integrity for the planned operation may not be available, develop an alternate

plan for landing at the airfield or proceed to your alternate.

26.5.4 Prior to Descent

26.5.4.1 GPS Approach Briefing

Thoroughly brief the entire GPS instrument approach procedure including the missed approach instructions.

Compare the approach retrieved from the GPS navigation database to the instrument approach procedure published

on your approach plate. Should differences between the approach chart and database arise, the published approach

chart, supplemented by NOTAMs, takes precedence.

26.5.4.2 Develop a Backup Plan

Develop a backup plan to use in case of GPS or GPS integrity failure. Pay particular attention to ground-based

NAVAIDs, which can be used to help maintain position awareness. Be sure to consider the possibility of equipment

failure past the FAF.

26.5.4.3 Load STAR

If a STAR is to be flown, load the appropriate STAR by retrieving the route from the navigation database. If the STAR

cannot be retrieved from the database, then you may not use RNAV procedures to fly the procedure. Additionally,

terminal area routing that cannot be retrieved from the navigation database may not be used.

26.5.5 Terminal Area Operations and Arrival

26.5.5.1 Maintain Situational Awareness

As you prepare to enter the busy environment of the terminal area, it is important to maintain a high level of situational

awareness using all available means. Monitor all ground-based NAVAIDs that are available to you (bearing pointers,

DME, etc.), as GPS approaches are flown point to point. With GPS selected, the bearing pointer on your HSI and

distance measurement (DME readout) may be to the next waypoint, not necessarily to the field.

26.5.6 Be Prepared to Use Traditional NAVAIDs

Experience has shown situational awareness can deteriorate when flying GPS approaches if the sequence of events

does not go as planned. Be prepared to go to your backup plan if you become disoriented while flying the GPS

approach.

26.5.6.1 Be Wary of “Heads-Down”

Operating with GPS in the terminal area tends to be more “heads-down” than normal, especially when things do not

go as planned. Being intimately familiar with your GPS equipment and thoroughly preparing for the approach will

allow you more time to clear for other traffic.

26-11

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

26.5.6.2 GPS is a New Form of Flying

Flying GPS approaches involves a new way of flying for most military pilots. Setting up a GPS receiver for an

approach usually involves many more operations than are required to configure traditional navigation equipment. The

sequence of events is critical to success. Setup routines are not always intuitive, requiring pilots to be thoroughly

familiar with their equipment before flying GPS approaches in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC). Once

the equipment is properly configured for the approach, the GPS-based approach is much easier and safer to fly than

a terrestrial-based (e.g., VOR, TACAN, etc.) nonprecision approach.

26.5.7 Approach Procedures

Flying a GPS approach is much like flying any other nonprecision approach. For procedures regarding equipment

specifics and setup, reference NATOPS and your FMS/GPS Operator’s Manual. Incorrect inputs into the GPS

receiver are especially critical during approaches. In some cases, an incorrect entry can cause the receiver to leave

the approach mode.

26.5.7.1 Prior to the IAF

Some GPS equipment will automatically “Arm” once the aircraft is within 30 nm from the airfield. Other equipment

will present a pilot selectable function when within 30 nm that requires the pilot to “Arm” the approach (refer to the

specific aircraft NATOPS). If manual arming is required by the equipment, then the aircrew shall “Arm” the approach

mode prior to the IAF. Arming the approach mode will allow your GPS equipment to automatically change from en

route RNP to terminal RNP.

26.5.7.1.1 Inside of 30 nm

If you do not arm the approach mode prior to 30 nm from the airport, your GPS equipment will generate a warning

once your aircraft is 30 nm from the airport. If the system automatically arms, there will be no annunciation at 30 nm.

26.5.7.1.2 3 nm Prior to the FAF

Approximately 3 nm prior to the FAF, your equipment will alert you that display sensitivity is about to change again.

At 3 nm, if you still have not armed the approach mode, it will give you another warning.

26.5.7.1.3 Ramp Down

Beginning 2 nm prior to the FAF, your equipment will (if previously armed) automatically scale from terminal

integrity performance (±1 nm) to approach integrity performance (±0.3 nm). This change in sensitivity is called

ramping down, and depending on your equipment, will occur between 2 nm prior to the FAF and the FAF. After

ramping down, the equipment is considered to be in approach mode.

Aircrew must ensure the equipment has switched from the armed mode to

the active mode by the time the aircraft reaches the FAF. Aircrew shall not

descend below the FAF altitude unless the equipment is in approach mode.

The aircraft may not remain within primary obstacle clearance area of the

instrument approach procedure. Transition to your backup approach (if

available) or proceed to the MAP along the final approach course and

execute the missed approach or comply with ATC instructions.

ORIGINAL

26-12

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

CAUTION

Failure to ramp down to approach mode may be an indication of integrity

failure, failure to arm, the aircraft did not enter the capture gate, or some

other type of failure.

26.5.7.1.4 Two Nautical Mile (2 nm) Lockout

At 2 nm, if you still have not armed the approach mode, your equipment will not let you fly the approach. Your

equipment will flag, and GPS navigation guidance will not be provided beyond the FAF.

26.5.7.1.5 GPS Integrity Warning Prior to FAF

If a GPS integrity warning occurs prior to the FAF, the pilot should not descend to the MDA, but should proceed to

the MAP via the FAF, perform a missed approach, and notify ATC as soon as practical. Alternatively, the pilot may

continue, provided a backup approach is available using another approved source of navigation.

26.5.7.2 Final Approach

The inbound course displayed on the GPS between the FAF and the MAP may be slightly different than that printed

on the approach chart and should not affect approach performance. This is due to the way the GPS connects the

approach waypoints.

26.5.7.2.1 Stepdown Waypoints

Stepdown waypoints in the final approach segment of RNAV (GPS) approaches are named in addition to being

identified by Along Track Distance (ATD). Most RNAV avionics currently do not accommodate waypoints between

the FAF and MAP. Stepdown waypoints may not appear in the sequence of waypoints in the navigation database.

Aircrew can determine the location of stepdown waypoints and visual descent points (if published) by using ATD.

26.5.7.2.2 GPS Integrity Warning After the FAF

A GPS integrity warning occurring after the FAF is a serious situation and pilots must be prepared to take immediate

action. Transition to your backup approach (if available) or proceed to the MAP along the final approach course and

execute the missed approach via the route and altitudes specified in the published missed approach procedure or

comply with ATC instructions.

26.5.7.3 Performing the Published Missed Approach Procedure

26.5.7.3.1 Missed Approach Point (MAP)

The designated MAP will vary depending on the type of approach minimums selected. The MAP for LNAV will be

the runway threshold or a named waypoint. The MAP for LNAV/VNAV will be at the published DA.

26.5.7.3.2 Select Missed Approach Mode

At the MAP, most equipment will not automatically sequence to the next required waypoint; therefore, the pilot must

manually sequence the GPS equipment to the next waypoint (refer to specific aircraft NATOPS).

26.5.7.3.3 Performing the Missed Approach

If the missed approach is initiated prior to the MAP, proceed to the MAP along the final approach course and then

via the route and altitudes specified in the published missed approach procedure or comply with ATC instructions.

If the missed approach procedure includes a turn, do not begin the turn prior to the MAP. The obstacle clearance area

provided for the missed approach is predicated upon the missed approach being started at the MAP.

26-13

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Note

The GPS/FMS may or may not provide proper guidance along the missed

approach path; therefore, it is imperative to review the missed approach

procedure fully prior to flying it.

26.5.7.3.4 Missed Approach Climb Gradient

Regardless of the method used to navigate the missed approach procedure, the pilot is still responsible for terrain and

obstacle avoidance as well as any ATC-required climb gradients. In order to avoid obstacles, pilots must plan to climb

at a minimum gradient of 200 feet per nm unless a higher gradient is published.

26.6

GPS NAVIGATION TRAINING

26.6.1 General

Aircrew should practice GPS approaches under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) until thoroughly proficient with all aspects

of their equipment (receiver and installation) prior to attempting flight under IFR in IMC. Many GPS receivers

provide a simulation mode that can be used to become familiar with receiver operations prior to actual flight

operations. Proper training of GPS navigation in controlled airspace will enhance safety and awareness when using

PPS for combat operations. GPS training will be developed, with assistance from Naval Air Systems Command

PMA-170, by the respective TYCOM/FRS/Type Wing.

26.6.2 Ground Instruction

The use of GPS for flight in controlled airspace requires a thorough knowledge of the terms and nomenclature used

to describe and depict GPS navigation processes. The charting of GPS procedures does not follow the convention

described by previous training. Some of the areas that GPS training should cover are:

1. The meaning and proper use of Aircraft Equipment/Navigation Suffixes.

2. Procedure characteristics as determined from chart depiction and textual description.

a. Depiction of waypoint types (fly-over and fly-by) and path terminators as well as associated aircraft flight

paths.

b. Published material for RNAV routes, SIDs, STARs, and GPS approaches.

3. Utilizing the RAIM prediction function.

4. RNAV/GPS system-specific information.

a. Levels of automation, mode annunciations, changes, alerts, interactions, reversions, and degradation.

b. Functional integration with other aircraft systems.

c. The meaning and appropriateness of route discontinuities as well as related flightcrew procedures.

d. Monitoring procedures for each phase of flight (e.g., monitor PROG or LEGS page).

e. Types of navigation sensors (e.g., IRU, EGI, GEM, MAGR2K) utilized by the RNAV system and associated

system prioritization/weighting/logic.

f. Turn anticipation with consideration to speed and altitude effects.

ORIGINAL

26-14

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

g. Interpretation of electronic displays and symbols.

h. Verify currency of aircraft navigation data.

i. Verify successful completion of RNAV system self-tests.

5. Crew coordination and FMS/CDU etiquette.

6. Using the FMS/CDU/displays to maximize situational awareness.

7. Using the FMS/CDU for visual approaches.

8. Extending a point for interception.

9. Intercepting a route between two points.

10. Conditional waypoints and FMS-generated waypoints.

26.6.3 GPS Navigation Flight Training

The amount and type of flight training should be sufficient to expose the flightcrew to the displays, autopilot use (if

applicable), and aircraft performance when using GPS for navigation.

Proceeding direct to a waypoint in the flight plan and not in the flight plan.

Inserting an instrument Departure Procedure (DP) into the flight plan, including setting terminal CDI

sensitivity, if required, and the conditions under which terminal RAIM is available for departure.

Inserting the destination airport in a flight plan.

Determining the correct IAF to proceed to when entering a Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) and determining the

correct altitudes within a TAA.

Executing overlay approaches (especially procedure turns and arcs).

Changing to another approach after selecting an approach.

Executing “direct” missed approaches where the route is direct to the first waypoint after the MAWP.

Executing “routed” missed approaches where the route is not direct to a waypoint from the MAWP, particularly

where a course must be manually inserted and flown. This procedure may vary with installation of the receiver.

Entering, flying, and exiting holding patterns “manually” (e.g., non-charted holding, holding following a

procedure turn, and holding with a second waypoint in the holding pattern).

10.

Flying a “route” from a holding pattern.

11.

Executing an approach with radar vectors to the final segment.

12.

Actions required for RAIM failure both before and after the Final Approach Waypoint (FAWP).

13.

Programming a radial and distance from a VOR.

14.

Recovering from sequencing past a waypoint at which holding was intended.

26-15

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

15. Operator-recommended levels of automation for phase of flight and workload, including methods to minimize

cross-track error to maintain procedure centerline.

16. Crew coordination and FMS/CDU etiquette.

17. Using the FMS/CDU to maximize situational awareness.

18. Using the FMS/CDU for visual approaches.

19. Extending a point for interception.

20. Intercepting a route between two points.

21. Conditional waypoints and FMS-generated waypoints.

26.7

FUTURE IMPROVEMENTS TO GPS

26.7.1 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is a critical component of the FAA strategic objective of a seamless

satellite navigation system for civil aviation. This system will improve the accuracy, availability, and integrity of GPS,

thereby improving the capacity and safety currently provided by the National Airspace System. Ultimately, WAAS

will allow GPS to be used as a primary means of navigation from takeoff through Category I precision approach.

WAAS will provide vertical guidance procedures to achieve an operational capability similar to an instrument landing

system, where suitable airport conditions exist.

Unlike traditional ground-based navigation aids, WAAS will cover a more extensive service area. Wide-Area Ground

Reference Stations (WRSs) have been linked to form a U.S. WAAS network. Signals from GPS satellites are received

by these precisely surveyed ground reference stations and any errors in the signals are identified. Each station in the

network relays the data to one of two Wide-Area Master Stations (WMSs), where correction information for specific

geographical areas is computed. A correction message is prepared and uplinked to a geostationary communications

satellite (GEO) via a Ground Uplink Station (GUS). This message is broadcast on the same frequency as GPS (L1,

1575.42 MHz) to future GPS/WAAS receivers onboard aircraft flying within the broadcast coverage area of WAAS.

Other modes of transportation also benefit from the increased accuracy, availability, and integrity that WAAS will

deliver. The WAAS broadcast message improves GPS signal accuracy from 100 meters to approximately 7 meters.

Planned expansion of the U.S. network will include Canada, Iceland, Mexico, and Panama, and has the potential to

expand to other countries as well. Additionally, Japan and Europe are building similar systems that are planned to

be interoperable with the U.S. WAAS. The merging of these systems will create a worldwide seamless navigation

capability similar to GPS, but with greater accuracy, availability, and integrity.

On March 7, 2006, the FAA declared that WAAS was performing to the level necessary to allow approaches to 200

feet DA. WAAS has provided coverage to 99 percent of the continental U.S. and has an availability rate of 99.87

percent. The FAA is commissioning 300 approaches per year that are WAAS capable. The addition of WAAS

capability will be shown in the minimums section of the approach chart as “LPV.” The LPV minimums shall only

be flown by properly certified aircraft.

ORIGINAL

26-16

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

26.7.2 Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS)

The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) will augment the Global Positioning System to provide an all-weather

approach, landing, and surface navigation capability. LAAS focuses its service on a local area (approximately a 20

to 30 mile radius), such as an airport, and broadcasts its correction message via a Very High Frequency (VHF) radio

data link from a ground-based transmitter. LAAS will have a profound impact on aviation navigation. LAAS will

yield the extremely high accuracy, availability, and integrity necessary for Category I, II, and III precision approaches.

It is expected that the end-state configuration will pinpoint the aircraft position to within one meter or less with a

significant improvement in service flexibility and user operating costs. Curved approach paths, not possible using

the current instrument landing systems, will be possible for Category I, II, and III precision approaches. Approaches

will be designed to avoid obstacles, restricted airspace, noise-sensitive areas, or congested airspace. Unlike current

landing systems, LAAS will provide multiple precision approach capabilities to runways within the LAAS coverage

area. Duplication of equipment solely for the purpose of serving multiple runways can be eliminated. Also, airports

with the need for precise surface area navigation may use the accuracy of LAAS for the position determination of

aircraft. Using this capability, controllers will know the location of all airport service vehicles and taxiing aircraft to

assist in the prevention of runway incursions in low visibility conditions. Furthermore, aircraft operators will benefit

from the reduction of expenses associated with purchasing a variety of radio navigation equipment. Potentially,

WAAS and LAAS could use the same aircraft avionics to accomplish both the WAAS and LAAS missions, reduce

avionics maintenance costs, and realize savings in aircrew training.

The FAA has already successfully demonstrated the feasibility of GPS-based Category III precision approaches and

has completed the proposed architecture for LAAS. This architecture was successfully presented and approved by

the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Panel in February

1997. To ensure LAAS will be compatible with international standards, participation in the International Civil

Aviation Organization (ICAO) Global Navigation Satellite System Panel (GNSS-P) has been ongoing. Initial FAA

Category I LAAS is scheduled to be operational by September 2003. Federal Category II/III development is

scheduled to begin in FY03 with production in FY06. The FAA and the Government-Industry Partnership (GIP)

partners will continue working toward a private/public use certified LAAS Category I system with the goal of

transitioning to the Federal Category I procurement as soon as possible.

26-17/(26-18 blank)

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

CHAPTER 27

Flight Planning

27.1

PREFLIGHT PREPARATION

Every pilot is required to obtain a preflight weather briefing, review all applicable Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs),

and file a flight plan. The weather briefing should consist of the latest or most current weather, airport, and en route

Navigation Aid (NAVAID) information. Weather briefing services should be obtained at a DoD weather forecasting

office. Weather minimums for naval aviators are defined in OPNAV 3710.7 series.

27.2

WEATHER BRIEFING, SUPPORT PRODUCTS, AND SEVERE WEATHER RESTRICTIONS

AND PRODUCTS

Navy and Marine Corps Meteorology and Oceanography (METOC) activities are tasked with providing METOC

support to the operating forces of the Navy and Marine Corps. These activities are equipped and staffed to provide

full spectrum METOC support products to naval aviators.

27.2.1 Weather Briefing

Pilots are responsible for reviewing and being familiar with weather conditions for the area in which flight is

contemplated. Before obtaining a flight clearance, a pilot must receive a weather briefing where services are

available; the briefing shall be conducted by a qualified meteorological forecaster. These briefings may be conducted

in person, or when available, via weathervision, telephone, or by autographic means. Additionally, a DD Form 175-1

(Flight Weather Briefing) shall be completed for all flights in accordance with OPNAVINST 3710.7 series.

Due to the perishable nature of meteorological data, and in an effort to ensure aviators have the most up-to-date

information, all weather briefings will be assigned a briefing void time. The briefing void time shall not exceed the

“weather briefed” time by more than 3 hours, and it shall never exceed the planned departure time by more than

30 minutes. This time may be extended when, in the opinion of the meteorologist, conditions are such that a review

of the initial form and the deletion/addition of pertinent data is such that a formal rebriefing is not required. When

extending void times, the rule stated above applies with the exception that the “weather rebriefed at” time is used as

the base time.

Flights departing after void time expiration are in violation of OPNAVINST 3710.7 series because, for record

purposes, the briefing never took place, as the official record of the briefing is no longer valid. Requests for extensions,

and proper planning, will eliminate this situation.

As a minimum, terminal forecasts entered on the DD Form 175-1 shall be valid for a period of 1 hour before, until

1 hour after, the planned arrival time at destination(s) and alternates. In the event a pilot is departing from an airfield

with no weather briefing facility, telephone briefings are available from both military and civilian facilities.

Telephone numbers for military briefing facilities are listed in the Flight Information Publications (FLIP). These

facilities may be called collect. The pilot receiving a weather briefing must ensure all essential weather elements have

been included and adequately covered in the briefing. Meteorological forecasters serve as advisors to the aviator;

therefore, pilots should not hesitate to request clarification or additional information when doubt exists. The ease with

which all-weather flights are completed successfully is directly proportional to the pilot’s preparation and

understanding of the environment in which the flight operates.

27.2.2 Support Products

In addition to the DD Form 175-1, there are other weather-related products that are readily available to aviators that

actively support safe and successful mission accomplishment.

27-1

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

27.2.2.1 Optimum Path Aircraft Routing System (OPARS)

Optimum Path Aircraft Routing System (OPARS) is a service that combines the latest forecast environmental wind

data fields with the most fuel-efficient flight profile for specific aircraft. A minimum of 2 to 3 hours is required for

submission of OPARS requests and return receipt of the completed product. The OPARS product is constructed

utilizing a database that contains aircraft performance characteristics, high-altitude airways, NAVAIDs, waypoints,

all airports with runways of 5,000 feet or longer (in the Northern Hemisphere), and restricted area information. The

environmental database contains wind data from 1,000 to 53,000 feet out to 48 hours, which is updated every 12 hours.

A typical OPARS flight plan will contain summarized flight times and distances, takeoff and landing weight, as well

as time, distance, airspeed, groundspeed, and fuel usage between NAVAIDs. It will accept any mission with up to three

legs, along standard jet routes from NAVAID point to NAVAID point, rhumbline with checkpoints every 5_ latitude

or longitude, or along great circle routes, and select the optimum path. The aviator selects these options before the

flight plan is submitted. OPARS will route at the most efficient flight level, or between any upper and lower flight

level. For further information on this program, refer to the Aviator’s Guide to OPARS Flight Planning (September

1998), or contact the nearest Naval Oceanography Command Activity.

27.2.2.2 Flight Weather Packets

When available, pilots are encouraged to request a flight weather packet when contemplating extended flights,

especially those flights that will be conducted on long overwater routes. As a minimum, in addition to a

DD Form 175-1, these packets contain surface and upper air charts, a Horizontal Weather Depiction (HWD) chart,

and, for overwater flights, altimeters and ditch headings. Additional charts/data tailored to meet special mission

needs, such as D values, OPARS data, etc., are also available. When considering the preparation time involved, and

the amount of data that must be accumulated and reviewed, every attempt should be made to give a minimum 2 hours

advance notice for this product. While en route, pilots should make every attempt to validate the data contained in

the packet. Upon arrival at destination, the packet should be provided to the local weather activity for review and

forwarding to the forecasting activity that prepared the packet.

27.2.3 Severe Weather Restrictions and Products

Whenever practical, flights shall be planned to circumvent areas of forecasted atmospheric icing and thunderstorm

activity.

27.2.3.1 Aviation Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (WWs)

The National Weather Service (NWS) issues unscheduled Severe Weather Watch Bulletins (WWs) whenever there

is a high probability of severe weather. These WWs are issued for a designated area and for a specified time period.

WWs are used by Naval Oceanography Command activities for forecasting hazardous flying conditions. Except for

operational necessity, emergencies, and flights involving all-weather research projects or weather reconnaissance,

pilots shall not file into or through areas where the National Weather Service has issued a WW unless one of the

following exceptions applies:

1. Performance characteristics of the aircraft permit an en route flight altitude above existing or developing severe

storms; or

2. Storm development has not progressed, as determined by a qualified meteorological forecaster, for the planned

route. In such situations:

a. Visual Flight Rules (VFR) filing is permitted if existing and forecast weather for the planned route permits

such flights.

b. Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight may be permitted if aircraft radar is installed and operative, thus

permitting detection and avoidance of isolated thunderstorms.

c. IFR flight is permissible in positive control areas if visual meteorological conditions can be maintained, thus

enabling aircraft to detect and avoid isolated thunderstorms.

ORIGINAL

27-2

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Note

In most cases, WWs are not issued specifically for immediate coastal

waters or adjacent oceanic areas; however, in some situations, the weather

associated with the WW will also be present over said areas. When dealing

with such a situation, pilots should request evaluation of the maritime area

by a forecaster to ensure WW conditions are not present.

27.2.3.2 Military Weather Warning Advisories (MWWAs)

The U.S. Air Force issues these graphical advisories, which provide an estimate of the weather-producing potential

of existing airmasses. These advisories are used whenever a WW is not in effect, and they are also useful for planning

purposes. MWWAs are posted in all Naval Weather Offices. A MWWA Bulletin that forecasts severe weather does

not constitute a WW.

27.2.3.3 Significant Meteorological Information

(SIGMETs) and Airmen’s Meteorological

Information (AIRMETs)

These advisories are prepared by the National Weather Service and broadcast by Flight Service Stations (FSSs) on

VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) facilities.

27.2.3.3.1 SIGMETs

These advisories include weather phenomena potentially hazardous to all categories of aircraft. SIGMETs fall under

two categories: convective and nonconvective.

27.2.3.3.2 Convective SIGMETs

Since thunderstorms are the reason for issuing convective SIGMETs, severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, and

low-level windshear associated with thunderstorm activity are implied. The criteria for issuing convective SIGMETs

are as follows:

1. Tornadoes.

2. Line of thunderstorms.

3. Embedded thunderstorm(s).

4. Thunderstorm areas greater than or equal to thunderstorm intensity level 4 with an area coverage of 4/10 (40

percent) or more.

5. Hail equal to or greater than 3/4 inch diameter.

Three convective SIGMET bulletins specifying Eastern (E), Central (C), and Western (W) U.S. will be issued, when

required, on a scheduled basis hourly at 55 minutes past the hour, and as specials on an unscheduled basis. They are

valid for 1 to 2 hours. It should be noted that although Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs) may not give

the content of SIGMETs, they do alert IFR traffic that one is being broadcast and provide the identification of the

NAVAID to monitor.

27.2.3.3.3 Nonconvective SIGMETs

The criteria for issuing nonconvective SIGMETs are as follows:

1. Severe and extreme turbulence.

2. Severe icing.

3. Widespread duststorms/sandstorms that lower visibility to less than 3 miles.

27-3

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

27.2.3.3.4 AIRMETs

These advisories will only be issued to amend an Aviation Area Forecast (FA) and relate to weather phenomena that

may be potentially hazardous to aircraft concerning the following:

1. Moderate icing.

2. Moderate turbulence.

3. Sustained winds of 30 knots or more at the surface.

4. Widespread areas of ceilings less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility less than 3 miles.

5. Extensive mountain obscurement.

It should be noted that if the above phenomena are adequately forecast in the FA, an AIRMET will not be

issued.

Applicable NOTAMs must be checked before every flight for your departure field, destination, possible alternates,

and the airspace in between. NOTAM information is available from the U.S. NOTAM System (USNS) via the

Defense Internet NOTAM Distribution System (DINS). Further explanation and definitions for all seven types of

NOTAMs can be found in the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).

File the DD-175 with the clearing authority at least 30 minutes prior to Estimated Time of Departure (ETD) in

accordance with OPNAV Instruction 3710.7 series and FLIP. If departing from a civil field, follow the procedure

outlined in FLIP. Weight and balance form and passenger manifest, if required, will be submitted with the flight plan.

Instructions for completing the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Form 7233-1 flight plan can be found in the

AIM.

Pilots shall use only the latest issue of aeronautical charts in planning and conducting flight operations. Aeronautical

charts are revised and reissued on a regular scheduled basis to ensure that depicted data are current and reliable. In

the conterminous U.S., Sectional Charts are updated every 6 months, IFR En Route Charts every 56 days, and

amendments to civil IFR Approach Charts are accomplished on a 56-day cycle with a change notice volume issued

on the 26-day midcycle. Charts that have been superseded by those of a more recent date may contain obsolete or

incomplete flight information.

FAA by 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Part 93, Subpart K, has designated High Density Traffic Airports

(HDTAs) and has prescribed air traffic rules and requirements for operating aircraft (excluding helicopter operations)

to and from these airports.

In addition to the filing of a flight plan, if the flight will traverse or land in one or more foreign countries, it is

particularly important that pilots leave a complete itinerary with someone directly concerned and keep that person

advised of the flight progress.

27.3

FOLLOW IFR PROCEDURES EVEN WHEN OPERATING VFR

To maintain IFR proficiency, pilots are urged to practice IFR procedures whenever possible, even when operating

VFR.

Simulated IFR flight is recommended (under the hood); however, pilots are cautioned to review and adhere to the

requirements specified in 14 CFR Section 91.109 before and during such flight.

When flying VFR at night, in addition to the altitude appropriate for the direction of flight, pilots should maintain

an altitude that is at or above the Minimum En Route Altitude (MEA) as shown on charts. This is especially true in

mountainous terrain, where there is usually very little ground reference. Do not depend on your eyes alone to avoid

rising unlighted terrain, or even lighted obstructions such as TV towers.

ORIGINAL

27-4

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

27.3.1 Flight Plan — VFR Flights

Except for operations in or penetrating a Coastal or Domestic Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) or Distant

Early Warning Identification Zone (DEWIZ), a flight plan is not required by the FAA for VFR flight. Local

requirements may differ.

It is strongly recommended that a flight plan (for a VFR flight) be filed. This will ensure you receive VFR Search

and Rescue Protection.

On pilot’s request, at a location having an active tower, the aircraft identification will be forwarded by the tower to

the FSS for reporting the actual departure time for the military arrival notification.

Although position reports are not required for VFR flight plans, periodic reports to FAA FSSs along the route are good

practice. Such contacts permit significant information to be passed to the transiting aircraft and also serve to check

the progress of the flight should it be necessary for any reason to locate the aircraft.

Pilots not operating on an IFR flight plan and when in level cruising flight are cautioned to conform with VFR cruising

altitudes appropriate to the direction of flight.

When filing VFR flight plans, indicate aircraft equipment capabilities by appending the appropriate suffix to aircraft

type in the same manner as that prescribed for IFR flight.

27.3.2 Flight Plan — Defense VFR (DVFR) Flights

VFR flights into a Coastal or Domestic ADIZ/DEWIZ are required to file Defense VFR (DVFR) flight plans for

security purposes. Detailed ADIZ procedures are found in the AIM, National Security and Interception Procedures.

(See 14 CFR Part 99.)

27.3.3 Composite Flight Plan (VFR/IFR Flights)

Flight plans that specify VFR operation for one portion of a flight, and IFR for another portion, are referred to as

Composite Flight Plans. If VFR flight is conducted for the first portion of the flight, pilots should report their departure

time to the FSS with whom the VFR/IFR flight plan was filed and, subsequently, close the VFR portion and request

Air Traffic Control (ATC) clearance from the FSS nearest the point at which change from VFR to IFR is proposed.

Regardless of the type facility with which you are communicating (FSS, center, or tower), it is the pilot’s

responsibility to request that facility to “CLOSE VFR FLIGHT PLAN.” The pilot must remain in VFR weather

conditions until operating in accordance with the IFR clearance.

When a flight plan indicates IFR for the first portion of flight and VFR for the latter portion, the pilot will normally

be cleared to the point at which the change is proposed. After reporting over the clearance limit and not desiring further

IFR clearance, the pilot should advise ATC to cancel the IFR portion of the flight plan. Then, the pilot should contact

the nearest FSS to activate the VFR portion of the flight plan. If the pilot desires to continue the IFR flight plan beyond

the clearance limit, the pilot should contact ATC at least 5 minutes prior to the clearance limit and request further IFR

clearance. If the requested clearance is not received prior to reaching the clearance limit fix, the pilot will be expected

to enter into a standard holding pattern on the radial or course to the fix unless a holding pattern for the clearance limit

fix is depicted on a U.S. Government or commercially produced (meeting FAA requirements) low or high altitude

en route, area, or Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) chart. In this case, the pilot will hold according to the depicted

pattern.

27.3.4 Flight Plan — IFR Flights

27.3.4.1 General

Prior to departure from within, or entering into, controlled airspace, a pilot must submit a complete flight plan and

receive an air traffic clearance if weather conditions are below VFR minimums. Instrument flight plans are normally

27-5

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

submitted through base operations, but can also be submitted to the nearest FSS or Airport Traffic Control Tower

(ATCT) either in person or by telephone (or by radio if no other means are available). Pilots should file IFR flight

plans at least 30 minutes prior to ETD to preclude possible delay in receiving a departure clearance from ATC. In order

to provide FAA traffic management units strategic route planning capabilities, nonscheduled operators conducting

IFR operations above Flight Level (FL) 230 are requested to voluntarily file IFR flight plans at least 4 hours prior

to ETD. To minimize your delay in entering Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas at destination when

IFR weather conditions exist or are forecast at that airport, an IFR flight plan should be filed before departure.

Otherwise, a 30 minute delay is not unusual in receiving an ATC clearance because of time spent in processing flight

plan data. Traffic saturation frequently prevents control personnel from accepting flight plans by radio. In such cases,

the pilot is advised to contact the nearest FSS for the purpose of filing the flight plan.

Note

There are several methods of obtaining IFR clearances at nontower,

non-FSS, and outlying airports. The procedure may vary due to

geographical features, weather conditions, and the complexity of the ATC

system. To determine the most effective means of receiving an IFR

clearance, pilots should ask the nearest FSS the most appropriate means of

obtaining the IFR clearance.

When filing an IFR flight plan for a Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)/ heavy equipped aircraft,

add the prefix T for TCAS, H for heavy, or B for both TCAS and heavy to the aircraft type.

When filing an IFR flight plan for flight in an aircraft equipped with a radar beacon transponder, Distance Measuring

Equipment (DME), Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN)-only equipment, Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS),

or a combination of any of these types of equipment, identify the equipment capability by adding a suffix, preceded

by a slant, to the aircraft type.

It is recommended that pilots file the maximum transponder or navigation capability of their aircraft in the equipment

suffix. This will provide ATC with the necessary information to utilize all facets of navigational equipment and

transponder capabilities available.

Note

The suffix is not to be added to the aircraft identification or be transmitted

by radio as part of the aircraft identification.

27.3.4.2 Airways and Jet Routes Depiction on Flight Plan

It is vitally important that the route of flight be accurately and completely described in the flight plan. To simplify

definition of the proposed route, and to facilitate ATC, pilots are requested to file via airways or jet routes established

for use at the altitude or flight level planned.

If flight is to be conducted via designated airways or jet routes, describe the route by indicating the type and number

designators of the airway(s) or jet route(s) requested. If more than one airway or jet route is to be used, clearly indicate

points of transition. If the transition is made at an unnamed intersection, show the next succeeding NAVAID or named

intersection on the intended route and the complete route from that point. Reporting points may be identified by using

authorized name/code as depicted on appropriate aeronautical charts. The following two examples illustrate the need

to specify the transition point when two routes share more than one transition fix.

The route of flight may also be described by naming the reporting points or NAVAIDs over which the flight will pass,

provided the points named are established for use at the altitude or flight level planned.

When the route of flight is defined by named reporting points, whether alone or in combination with airways or jet

routes, and the navigational aids (VOR, VORTAC, TACAN, Non-Directional Beacon [NDB]) to be used for the flight

are a combination of different types of aids, enough information should be included to clearly indicate the route

requested.

ORIGINAL

27-6

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

When filing IFR, it is to the pilot’s advantage to file a preferred route. These routes can be found in FLIP publications.

ATC may issue a DP or a STAR, as appropriate.

Note

Pilots not desiring a DP or STAR should so indicate in the remarks section

of the flight plan as “no DP” or “no STAR.”

27.3.4.3 Direct Flights

All or any portions of the route that will not be flown on the radials or courses of established airways or routes, such

as direct route flights, must be defined by indicating the radio fixes over which the flight will pass. Fixes selected to

define the route shall be those over which the position of the aircraft can be accurately determined. Such fixes

automatically become compulsory reporting points for the flight, unless advised otherwise by ATC. Only those

navigational aids established for use in a particular structure (e.g., in the low or high structures) may be used to define

the en route phase of a direct flight within that altitude structure.

The azimuth feature of VOR aids and that azimuth and distance (DME) features of VORTAC and TACAN aids are

assigned certain frequency-protected areas of airspace that are intended for application to established airway and

route use, and to provide guidance for planning flights outside of established airways or routes. These areas of airspace

are expressed in terms of cylindrical service volumes of specified dimensions called class limits or categories.

An operational service volume has been established for each class in which adequate signal coverage and frequency

protection can be assured. To facilitate use of VOR, VORTAC, or TACAN aids, consistent with their operational

service volume limits, pilot use of such aids for defining a direct route of flight in controlled airspace should not

exceed the following:

1. Operations above FL 450 — Use aids not more than 200 nm apart. These aids are depicted on en route high

altitude charts.

2. Operation off established routes from 18,000 feet Mean Sea Level (MSL) to FL 450 — Use aids not more than

260 nm apart. These aids are depicted on en route high altitude charts.

3. Operation off established airways below 18,000 feet MSL — Use aids not more than 80 nm apart. These aids

are depicted on en route low altitude charts.

4. Operation off established airways between 14,500 feet MSL and 17,999 feet MSL in the conterminous U.S.

— (H) facilities not more than 200 nm apart may be used.

Increasing use of self-contained airborne navigational systems that do not rely on the VOR/VORTAC/TACAN

system has resulted in pilot requests for direct routes that exceed NAVAID service volume limits. These direct route

requests will be approved only in a radar environment, with approval based on pilot responsibility for navigation on

the authorized direct route. Radar flight following will be provided by ATC for ATC purposes.

At times, ATC will initiate a direct route in a radar environment that exceeds NAVAID service volume limits. In such

cases, ATC will provide radar monitoring and navigational assistance as necessary.

Airway or jet route numbers, appropriate to the stratum in which operation will be conducted, may also be included

to describe portions of the route to be flown.

Note

When route of flight is described by radio fixes, the pilot will be expected

to fly a direct course between the points named.

27-7

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Pilots are reminded that they are responsible for adhering to obstruction clearance requirements on those segments

of direct routes that are outside of controlled airspace. The MEAs and other altitudes shown on low altitude IFR en

route charts pertain to those route segments within controlled airspace, and those altitudes may not meet obstruction

clearance criteria when operating off those routes.

27.3.4.4 Area Navigation (RNAV)

Random RNAV routes can only be approved in a radar environment. Factors that will be considered by ATC in

approving random RNAV routes include the capability to provide radar monitoring and compatibility with traffic

volume and flow. ATC will radar monitor each flight; however, navigation on the random RNAV route is the

responsibility of the pilot.

To be certified for use in the National Airspace System, RNAV equipment must meet the specifications outlined in

AC 90-45. The pilot is responsible for variations in equipment capability and must advise ATC if a RNAV clearance

cannot be accepted as specified. The controller need only be concerned that the aircraft is RNAV equipped; if the flight

plan equipment suffix denotes RNAV capability, the RNAV routing can be applied.

Pilots of aircraft equipped with operational area navigation equipment may file for random RNAV routes throughout

the National Airspace System, where radar monitoring by ATC is available, in accordance with the following

procedures:

1. File airport-to-airport flight plans prior to departure.

2. File the appropriate RNAV capability certification suffix in the flight plan.

3. Plan the random route portion of the flight plan to begin and end over appropriate arrival and departure

transition fixes or appropriate navigation aids for the altitude stratum within which the flight will be conducted.

The use of normal preferred departure and arrival routes (DP/STAR), where established, is recommended.

4. File route structure transitions to and from the random route portion of the flight.

5. Define the random route by waypoints. File route description waypoints by using degree-distance fixes based

on navigational aids that are appropriate for the altitude stratum.

6. File a minimum of one route description waypoint for each ARTCC through whose area the random route will

be flown. These waypoints must be located within 200 nm of the boundary of the preceding center.

7. File an additional route description waypoint for each turn point in the route.

8. Plan additional route description waypoints as required to ensure accurate navigation via the filed route of

flight. Navigation is the pilot’s responsibility unless ATC assistance is requested.

9. Plan the route of flight so as to avoid prohibited and restricted airspace by 3 nm unless permission has been

obtained to operate in that airspace and the appropriate ATC facilities are advised.

Pilots of aircraft equipped with latitude/longitude coordinate navigation capability, independent of VOR/TACAN

references, may file for random RNAV routes at and above FL 390 within the conterminous U.S. using the following

procedures:

1. File airport-to-airport flight plans prior to departure.

2. File the appropriate RNAV capability certification suffix in the flight plan.

3. Plan the random route portion of the flight to begin and end over published departure/arrival transition fixes

or appropriate navigation aids for airports without published transition procedures. The use of preferred

departure and arrival routes, such as DP and STAR where established, is recommended.

ORIGINAL

27-8

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

4. Plan the route of flight so as to avoid prohibited and restricted airspace by 3 nm unless permission has been

obtained to operate in that airspace and the appropriate ATC facility is advised.

5. Define the route of flight after the departure fix, including each intermediate fix (turn point) and the arrival

fix for the destination airport in terms of latitude/longitude coordinates plotted to the nearest minute. The

arrival fix must be identified by both the latitude/longitude coordinates and a fix identifier.

6. Record latitude/longitude coordinates by four figures describing latitude in degrees and minutes followed by

a solidus and five figures describing longitude in degrees and minutes.

7. File at FL 390 or above for the random RNAV portion of the flight.

8. Fly all routes/route segments on great circle tracks.

9. Make any in-flight requests for random RNAV clearances or route amendments to an en route ATC facility.

Note

Use NAVAIDs or waypoints to define direct routes and radials/bearings to

define other unpublished routes.

A description of the International Flight Plan Form is contained in the FLIP or the International Flight Information

Manual (IFIM).

27.4

IFR OPERATIONS TO HIGH-ALTITUDE DESTINATIONS

Pilots planning IFR flights to airports located in mountainous terrain are cautioned to consider the necessity for an

alternate airport even when the forecast weather conditions would technically relieve them from the requirement to

file one.

The FAA has identified three possible situations where the failure to plan for an alternate airport when flying IFR to

such a destination airport could result in a critical situation if the weather is less than forecast and sufficient fuel is

not available to proceed to a suitable airport:

1. An IFR flight to an airport where the Minimum Descent Altitudes (MDAs) or landing visibility minimums for

all instrument approaches are higher than the forecast weather minimums specified in 14 CFR Section

91.167(b). For example, there are 3 high-altitude airports in the U.S. with approved instrument approach

procedures where all of the MDAs are greater than 2,000 feet and/or the landing visibility minimums are

greater than 3 miles: Bishop, California; South Lake Tahoe, California; and Aspen-Pitkin Co./Sardy Field,

Colorado. In the case of these airports, it is possible for a pilot to elect, on the basis of forecasts, not to carry

sufficient fuel to get to an alternate when the ceiling and/or visibility is actually lower than that necessary to

complete the approach.

2. A small number of other airports in mountainous terrain have MDAs that are slightly (100 to 300 feet) below

2,000 feet AGL. In situations where there is an option as to whether to plan for an alternate, pilots should bear

in mind that just a slight worsening of the weather conditions from those forecast could place the airport below

the published IFR landing minimums.

3. An IFR flight to an airport that requires special equipment (e.g., DME, glideslope, etc.) in order to make the

available approaches to the lowest minimums. Pilots should be aware that all other minimums on the approach

charts may require weather conditions better than those specified in 14 CFR Section 91.167(b). An in-flight

equipment malfunction could result in the inability to comply with the published approach procedures or,

again, in the position of having the airport below the published IFR landing minimums for all remaining

instrument approach alternatives.

27-9

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

27.5

FLIGHTS OUTSIDE THE U.S. AND U.S. TERRITORIES

When conducting flights, particularly extended flights, outside the U.S. and its territories, full account should be taken

of the amount and quality of air navigation services available in the airspace to be traversed. Every effort should be

made to secure information on the location and range of navigational aids, availability of communications and

meteorological services, the provision of air traffic services, including alerting service, and the existence of search

and rescue services.

Pilots should remember that there is a need to continuously guard the VHF emergency frequency 121.5 MHz when

on long overwater flights, except when communications on other VHF channels, equipment limitations, or cockpit

duties prevent simultaneous guarding of two channels. Guarding of 121.5 MHz is particularly critical when operating

in proximity to Flight Information Region (FIR) boundaries (e.g., operations on Route R220 between Anchorage and

Tokyo), as it serves to facilitate communications with regard to aircraft that may experience in-flight emergencies,

communications, or navigational difficulties.

The filing of a flight plan, always good practice, takes on added significance for extended flights outside U.S. airspace

and is, in fact, usually required by the laws of the countries being visited or overflown. It is also particularly important

in the case of such flights that pilots leave a complete itinerary and schedule of the flight with someone directly

concerned and keep that person advised of the flight progress. If serious doubt arises as to the safety of the flight, that

person should first contact the appropriate FSS. Round Robin flight plans to Mexico are not accepted.

All pilots should review the foreign airspace and entry restrictions published in the IFIM, FLIP, and Foreign Clearance

Guide during the flight planning process. Foreign airspace penetration without official authorization can involve both

danger to the aircraft and the imposition of severe penalties and inconvenience to both passengers and crew. A flight

plan on file with ATC authorities does not necessarily constitute the prior permission required by certain other

authorities. The possibility of fatal consequences cannot be ignored in some areas of the world.

Current NOTAMs for foreign locations must also be reviewed. The publication Notices to Airmen,

Domestic/International, published biweekly, contains considerable information pertinent to foreign flight. Current

foreign NOTAMs are also available from the U.S. International NOTAM Office in Washington, D.C., through any

local FSS.

When customs notification is required, it is the responsibility of the pilot to arrange for customs notification in a timely

manner. The following guidelines are applicable:

1. When customs notification is required on flights to Canada and Mexico and a predeparture flight plan cannot

be filed or an Advise Customs message (ADCUS) cannot be included in a predeparture flight plan, call the

nearest en route domestic or International FSS as soon as radio communication can be established and file a

VFR or DVFR flight plan, as required, and include as the last item the advise customs information. The station

with which such a flight plan is filed will forward it to the appropriate FSS, who will notify the customs office

responsible for the destination airport.

2. If the pilot fails to include ADCUS in the radioed flight plan, it will be assumed that other arrangements have

been made and FAA will not advise customs.

3. The FAA assumes no responsibility for any delays in advising customs if the flight plan is given too late for

delivery to customs before arrival of the aircraft. It is still the pilot’s responsibility to give timely notice even

though a flight plan is given to FAA.

4. Air Commerce Regulations of the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement require all private aircraft

arriving in the U.S. via:

a. The U.S./Mexican border or the Pacific Coast from a foreign place in the Western Hemisphere south of 33

degrees north latitude and between 97 degrees and 120 degrees west longitude; or

ORIGINAL

27-10

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

b. The Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Coasts from a foreign place in the Western Hemisphere south of 30 degrees

north latitude, shall furnish a notice of arrival to the Customs service at the nearest designated airport. This

notice may be furnished directly to Customs by:

(1) Radio through the appropriate FAA Flight Service Station.

(2) Normal FAA flight plan notification procedures (a flight plan filed in Mexico does not meet this

requirement due to unreliable relay of data); or

(3) Directly to the district Director of Customs or other Customs officer at place of first intended landing

but must be furnished at least 1 hour prior to crossing the U.S./Mexican border or the U.S. coastline.

c. This notice will be valid as long as actual arrival is within 15 minutes of the original Estimated Time of

Arrival (ETA); otherwise, a new notice must be given to Customs. Notices will be accepted up to 23 hours

in advance. Unless an exemption has been granted by Customs, private aircraft are required to make first

landing in the U.S. at one of the following designated airports nearest to the point of border of coastline

crossing.

27.6

CHANGE IN FLIGHT PLAN

In addition to altitude or flight level, destination and/or route changes, increasing or decreasing the speed of an aircraft

constitutes a change in a flight plan; therefore, at any time the average true airspeed at cruising altitude between

reporting points varies or is expected to vary from that given in the flight plan by plus or minus 5 percent, or 10 knots,

whichever is greater, ATC should be advised.

27.7

CHANGE IN PROPOSED DEPARTURE TIME

To prevent computer saturation in the en route environment, parameters have been established to delete proposed

departure flight plans that have not been activated. Most centers have this parameter set so as to delete these flight

plans a minimum of 1 hour after the proposed departure time. To ensure a flight plan remains active, pilots whose

actual departure time will be delayed 1 hour or more beyond their filed departure time are requested to notify ATC

of their departure time.

Due to traffic saturation, control personnel frequently will be unable to accept these revisions via radio. It is

recommended that you forward these revisions to the nearest FSS.

27.8

CLOSING VFR/DVFR FLIGHT PLANS

A pilot is responsible for ensuring that his/her VFR or DVFR flight plan is canceled. You should close your flight

plan with the nearest FSS or, if one is not available, you may request any ATC facility to relay your cancellation to

the FSS. Control towers do not automatically close VFR or DVFR flight plans because they do not know if a particular

VFR aircraft is on a flight plan. If you fail to report or cancel your flight plan within 1/2 hour after your ETA, search

and rescue procedures are started.

27.9

CANCELING IFR FLIGHT PLAN

14 CFR Sections 91.153 and 91.169 include the statement “When a flight plan has been activated, the

pilot-in-command, upon canceling or completing the flight under the flight plan, shall notify an FAA Flight Service

Station or ATC facility.”

An IFR flight plan may be canceled at any time the flight is operating in VFR conditions outside Class A airspace

by pilots stating “CANCEL MY IFR FLIGHT PLAN” to the controller or air/ground station with which they are

communicating. Immediately after canceling an IFR flight plan, a pilot should take the necessary action to change

to the appropriate air/ground frequency, VFR radar beacon code, and VFR altitude or flight level.

27-11

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

ATC separation and information services will be discontinued, including radar services (where applicable).

Consequently, if the canceling flight desires VFR radar advisory service, the pilot must specifically request it.

Note

Pilots must be aware that other procedures may be applicable to a flight that

cancels an IFR flight plan within an area where a special program, such as

a designated Terminal Radar Service Area (TRSA), Class C airspace, or

Class B airspace, has been established.

If a DVFR flight plan requirement exists, the pilot is responsible for filing this flight plan to replace the canceled IFR

flight plan. If a subsequent IFR operation becomes necessary, a new IFR flight plan must be filed and an ATC

clearance obtained before operating in IFR conditions.

If operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport with a functioning control tower, the flight plan is automatically closed

upon landing.

If operating on an IFR flight plan to an airport where there is no functioning control tower, the pilot must initiate

cancellation of the IFR flight plan. This can be done after landing if there is a functioning FSS or other means of direct

communications with ATC. In the event there is no FSS and/or air/ground communications with ATC is not possible

below a certain altitude, the pilot should, weather conditions permitting, cancel the IFR flight plan while still airborne

and able to communicate with ATC by radio. This will not only save the time and expense of canceling the flight plan

by telephone but will quickly release the airspace for use by other aircraft.

ORIGINAL

27-12

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

CHAPTER 28

Flight Clearance

28.1

CLEARANCE

A clearance issued by Air Traffic Control (ATC) is predicated on known traffic and known physical airport conditions.

An ATC clearance means an authorization by ATC, for the purpose of preventing collision between known aircraft,

for an aircraft to proceed under specified conditions within controlled airspace. IT IS NOT AUTHORIZATION FOR

A PILOT TO DEVIATE FROM ANY RULE, REGULATION, OR MINIMUM ALTITUDE NOR TO CONDUCT

UNSAFE OPERATION OF THE AIRCRAFT.

14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Section 91.3(a) states: “The pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly

responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.” If ATC issues a clearance that would

cause a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation, or in the pilot’s opinion, would place the aircraft in jeopardy, IT IS

THE PILOT’S RESPONSIBILITY TO REQUEST AN AMENDED CLEARANCE. Similarly, if a pilot prefers to

follow a different course of action, such as make a 360-degree turn for spacing to follow traffic when established in

a landing or approach sequence, land on a different runway, take off from a different intersection, take off from the

threshold instead of an intersection, or delay operation, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO INFORM ATC

ACCORDINGLY. When the pilot requests a different course of action, however, the pilot is expected to cooperate

so as to preclude disruption of traffic flow or creation of conflicting patterns. The pilot is also expected to use the

appropriate aircraft call sign to acknowledge all ATC clearances, frequency changes, or advisory information.

Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance in response to a Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System

resolution advisory shall notify ATC of that deviation as soon as possible.

When weather conditions permit, during the time an Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight is operating, it is the direct

responsibility of the pilot to avoid other aircraft, as Visual Flight Rules (VFR) flights may be operating in the same

area without the knowledge of ATC. Traffic clearances provide standard separation only between IFR flights.

28.2

CLEARANCE PREFIX

A clearance, control information, or a response to a request for information originated by an ATC facility and relayed

to the pilot through an AG communication station will be prefixed by “ATC clears,” “ATC advises,” or “ATC

requests.”

28.3

CLEARANCE ITEMS

ATC clearances normally contain the following:

28.3.1 Clearance Limit

The traffic clearance issued prior to departure will normally authorize flight to the airport of intended landing. Under

certain conditions, at some locations a short-range clearance procedure is utilized whereby a clearance is issued to

a fix within or just outside of the terminal area and pilots are advised of the frequency on which they will receive the

long-range clearance direct from the center controller.

28.3.2 Departure Procedure

Headings to fly and altitude restrictions may be issued to separate a departure from other air traffic in the terminal

area. Where the volume of traffic warrants, DPs have been developed.

28-1

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

28.3.3 Route of Flight

Clearances are normally issued for the altitude or flight level and route filed by the pilot; however, due to traffic

conditions, it is frequently necessary for ATC to specify an altitude or flight level or route different from that requested

by the pilot. In addition, flow patterns have been established in certain congested areas or between congested areas

whereby traffic capacity is increased by routing all traffic on preferred routes. Information on these flow patterns is

available in offices where preflight briefing is furnished or where flight plans are accepted.

When required, air traffic clearances include data to assist pilots in identifying radio reporting points. It is the

responsibility of pilots to notify ATC immediately if their radio equipment cannot receive the type of signals they must

utilize to comply with their clearance.

28.3.4 Altitude Data

The altitude or flight level instructions in an ATC clearance normally require that a pilot maintain the altitude or flight

level at which the flight will operate when in controlled airspace. Altitude or flight level changes while en route should

be requested prior to the time the change is desired.

When possible, if the altitude assigned is different from the altitude requested by the pilot, ATC will inform the pilot

when to expect climb or descent clearance or to request altitude change from another facility. If this has not been

received prior to crossing the ATC facility area boundary and assignment at a different altitude is still desired, the pilot

should reinitiate the request with the next facility.

The term cruise may be used instead of maintain to assign a block of airspace to a pilot from the Minimum IFR Altitude

(MIA) up to and including the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. The pilot may level off at any intermediate

altitude within this block of airspace. Climb/descent within the block is to be made at the discretion of the pilot;

however, once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports leaving an altitude in the block, the pilot may not return

to that altitude without additional ATC clearance.

28.3.5 Holding Instructions

Whenever an aircraft has been cleared to a fix other than the destination airport and delay is expected, it is the

responsibility of the ATC controller to issue complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is charted), an Expected

Further Clearance Time (EFC), and a best estimate of any additional en route/terminal delay.

If the holding pattern is charted and the controller does not issue complete holding instructions, the pilot is expected

to hold as depicted on the appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the controller may omit all holding

instructions except the charted holding direction and the statement “AS PUBLISHED” (e.g., “HOLD EAST AS

PUBLISHED”). Controllers shall always issue complete holding instructions when pilots request them.

Note

Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government or commercially

produced charts that meet Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA)

requirements should be used.

If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask ATC for holding

instructions prior to reaching the fix. This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an aircraft entering a holding

pattern other than that desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to

frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), hold in a standard pattern on the course on which you approached the

fix and request further clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the

clearance limit will be protected so that separation will be provided as required.

When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not been received, the

pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix, initially, at or below the maximum

holding airspeed.

When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as possible and, whenever

possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.

ORIGINAL

28-2

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Pilots should report to ATC the time and altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the clearance limit and report

leaving the clearance limit.

Note

In the event of two-way communications failure, pilots are required to

comply with 14 CFR Section 91.185.

28.4

AMENDED CLEARANCES

Amendments to the initial clearance will be issued at any time an air traffic controller deems such action necessary

to avoid possible confliction between aircraft. Clearances will require that a flight hold or change altitude prior to

reaching the point where standard separation from other IFR traffic would no longer exist.

Note

Some pilots have questioned this action and requested traffic information

and were at a loss when the reply indicated no traffic report. In such cases,

the controller has taken action to prevent a traffic confliction that would

have occurred at a distant point.

A pilot may wish an explanation of the handling of the flight at the time of occurrence; however, controllers are not

able to take time from their immediate control duties nor can they afford to overload the ATC communications

channels to furnish explanations. Pilots may obtain an explanation by directing a letter or telephone call to the chief

controller of the facility involved.

Pilots have the privilege of requesting a different clearance from that issued by ATC if they believe they have

information that would make another course of action more practical or if aircraft equipment limitations or company

procedures forbid compliance with the clearance issued.

28.5

SPECIAL VFR CLEARANCES

An ATC clearance must be obtained prior to operating within a Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E surface area

when the weather is less than that required for VFR flight. A VFR pilot may request and be given a clearance to enter,

leave, or operate within most Class D and Class E surface areas and some Class B and Class C surface areas in special

VFR conditions, traffic permitting, and providing such flight will not delay IFR operations. All special VFR flights

must remain clear of clouds. The visibility requirements for special VFR aircraft (other than helicopters) are:

1. At least 1 statute mile flight visibility for operations within Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas.

2. At least 1 statute mile ground visibility if taking off or landing. If ground visibility is not reported at that airport,

the flight visibility must be at least 1 statute mile.

3. The restrictions in subparagraphs 1 and 2 do not apply to helicopters. Helicopters must remain clear of clouds

and may operate in Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas with less than 1 statute mile visibility.

When a control tower is located within the Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area, requests for clearances should

be to the tower. In a Class E surface area, a clearance may be obtained from the nearest tower, FSS, or center.

It is not necessary to file a complete flight plan with the request for clearance, but pilots should state their intentions

in sufficient detail to permit ATC to fit their flight into the traffic flow. The clearance will not contain a specific

altitude, as the pilot must remain clear of clouds. The controller may require the pilot to fly at or below a certain

altitude due to other traffic, but the altitude specified will permit flight at or above the minimum safe altitude. In

addition, at radar locations, flights may be vectored if necessary for control purposes or on pilot request.

Note

The pilot is responsible for obstacle or terrain clearance.

28-3

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Special VFR clearances are effective within Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas only. ATC does not

provide separation after an aircraft leaves the Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E surface area on a special VFR

clearance.

Special VFR operations by fixed-wing aircraft are prohibited in some Class B and Class C surface areas due to the

volume of IFR traffic. A list of these Class B and Class C surface areas is contained in 14 CFR Part 91, Appendix

D, Section 3. They are also depicted on sectional aeronautical charts.

ATC provides separation between Special VFR flights and between these flights and other IFR flights.

Special VFR operations by fixed-wing aircraft are prohibited between sunset and sunrise unless the pilot is instrument

rated and the aircraft is equipped for IFR flight.

Pilots arriving or departing an uncontrolled airport that has automated weather broadcast capability (Automated

Surface Observing System/Automated Weather Observing System [ASOS/AWOS]) should monitor the broadcast

frequency, advise the controller that they have the one-minute weather and state intentions prior to operating within

the Class B, Class C, Class D, or Class E surface areas.

28.6

PILOT RESPONSIBILITY UPON CLEARANCE ISSUANCE

28.6.1 Record ATC Clearance

When conducting an IFR operation, make a written record of your clearance. The specified conditions that are a part

of your air traffic clearance may be somewhat different from those included in your flight plan. Additionally, ATC

may find it necessary to ADD conditions, such as particular departure route. The very fact that ATC specifies different

or additional conditions means that other aircraft are involved in the traffic situation.

28.6.2 ATC Clearance/Instruction Readback

Pilots of airborne aircraft should read back those parts of ATC clearances and instructions containing altitude

assignments or vectors as a means of mutual verification. The readback of the numbers serves as a double check

between pilots and controllers and reduces the kinds of communications errors that occur when a number is either

misheard or is incorrect.

1. Include the aircraft identification in all readbacks and acknowledgments. This aids controllers in determining

that the correct aircraft received the clearance or instruction. The requirement to include aircraft identification

in all readbacks and acknowledgements becomes more important as frequency congestion increases and when

aircraft with similar call signs are on the same frequency.

2. Read back altitudes, altitude restrictions, and vectors in the same sequence as they are given in the clearance

or instruction.

3. Altitudes contained in charted procedures, such as DPs, instrument approaches, etc. should not be read back

unless they are specifically stated by the controller.

It is the responsibility of the pilot to accept or refuse the clearance issued.

28.7

IFR CLEARANCE VFR-ON-TOP

A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR weather conditions may request VFR-on-top in lieu of an assigned

altitude. This permits pilots to select an altitude or flight level of their choice (subject to any ATC restrictions).

Pilots desiring to climb through a cloud, haze, smoke, or other meteorological formation and then either cancel their

IFR flight plan or operate VFR-on-top may request a climb to VFR-on-top. The ATC authorization shall contain either

a top report or a statement that no top report is available and a request to report reaching VFR-on-top. Additionally,

the ATC authorization may contain a clearance limit, routing, and an alternative clearance if VFR-on-top is not

reached by a specified altitude.

ORIGINAL

28-4

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

A pilot on an IFR flight plan, operating in VFR conditions, may request to climb/descend in VFR conditions.

ATC may not authorize VFR-on-top/VFR conditions operations unless the pilot requests the VFR operation or a

clearance to operate in VFR conditions will result in noise abatement benefits where part of the IFR departure route

does not conform to an FAA-approved noise abatement route or altitude.

When operating in VFR conditions with an ATC authorization to maintain VFR-on-top/maintain VFR conditions,

pilots on IFR flight plans must:

1. Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as prescribed in 14 CFR Section 91.159.

2. Comply with the VFR visibility and distance from cloud criteria in 14 CFR Section 91.155 (Basic VFR Weather

Minimums).

3. Comply with instrument flight rules that are applicable to this flight (e.g., minimum IFR altitudes, position

reporting, radio communications, course to be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.).

Note

Pilots should advise ATC prior to any altitude change to ensure the

exchange of accurate traffic information.

ATC authorization to maintain VFR-on-top is not intended to restrict pilots so that they must operate only above an

obscuring meteorological formation (layer). Instead, it permits operation above, below, between layers, or in areas

where there is no meteorological obscuration; however, it is imperative that pilots understand that clearance to operate

VFR-on-top/VFR conditions does not imply cancellation of the IFR flight plan.

Pilots operating VFR-on-top/VFR conditions may receive traffic information from ATC on other pertinent IFR or

VFR aircraft; however, aircraft operating in Class B airspace/Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSAs) shall be

separated as required by FAA Order 7110.65, Air Traffic Control.

Note

When operating in VFR weather conditions, it is the pilot’s responsibility

to be vigilant so as to see and avoid other aircraft.

ATC will not authorize VFR or VFR-on-top operations in Class A airspace.

28.8

VFR/IFR FLIGHTS

A pilot departing VFR, either intending to or needing to obtain an IFR clearance en route, must be aware of the

position of the aircraft and the relative terrain/obstructions. When accepting a clearance below the Minimum En

Route Altitude (MEA)/MIA/Minimum Vectoring Altitude (MVA)/Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude

(OROCA), pilots are responsible for their own terrain/obstruction clearance until reaching the

MEA/MIA/MVA/OROCA. If pilots are unable to maintain terrain/obstruction clearance, the controller should be

advised and pilots should state their intentions.

Note

OROCA is an off-route altitude that provides obstruction clearance with a

1,000-foot buffer in nonmountainous terrain areas and a 2,000-foot buffer

in designated mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude may not

provide signal coverage from ground-based navigational aids, air traffic

control radar, or communications coverage.

28.9

ADHERENCE TO CLEARANCE

When air traffic clearance has been obtained under either visual or instrument flight rules, the pilot in command of

the aircraft shall not deviate from the provisions thereof unless an amended clearance is obtained. When ATC issues

28-5

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

a clearance or instruction, pilots are expected to execute its provisions upon receipt. ATC, in certain situations, will

include the word “IMMEDIATELY” in a clearance or instruction to impress urgency of an imminent situation and

expeditious compliance by the pilot is expected and necessary for safety. The addition of a VFR or other restriction

(e.g., climb or descent point or time, crossing altitude, etc.) does not authorize a pilot to deviate from the route of flight

or any other provision of the ATC clearance.

When a heading is assigned or a turn is requested by ATC, pilots are expected to initiate the turn promptly, complete

the turn, and maintain the new heading unless issued additional instructions.

The phrase “AT PILOT’S DISCRETION” included in the altitude information of an ATC clearance means that ATC

has offered the pilot the option to start climb or descent when the pilot wishes and the pilot is authorized to conduct

the climb or descent at any rate and to level off temporarily at any intermediate altitude as desired; however, once

the aircraft has vacated an altitude, it may not return to that altitude.

When ATC has not used the phrase “AT PILOT’S DISCRETION” nor imposed any climb or descent restrictions,

pilots should initiate climb or descent promptly on acknowledgement of the clearance. Descend or climb at an

optimum rate consistent with the operating characteristics of the aircraft to 1,000 feet above or below the assigned

altitude, and then attempt to descend or climb at a rate of between 500 and 1,500 fpm until the assigned altitude is

reached. If at any time the pilot is unable to climb or descend at a rate of at least 500 fpm, advise ATC. If it is necessary

to level off at an intermediate altitude during climb or descent, advise ATC, except when leveling off at 10,000 feet

Mean Sea Level (MSL) on descent, or 2,500 feet above airport elevation (prior to entering a Class B, Class C, or Class

D surface area), when required for speed reduction.

Note

Leveling off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent or 2,500 feet above airport

elevation (prior to entering a Class B, Class C, or Class D surface area) to

comply with 14 CFR Section 91.117 airspeed restrictions is commonplace.

Controllers anticipate this action and plan accordingly. Leveling off at any

other time on climb or descent may seriously affect air traffic handling by

ATC. Consequently, it is imperative that pilots make every effort to fulfill

the above expected actions to aid ATC in safely handling and expediting

traffic.

If the altitude information of an ATC DESCENT clearance includes a provision to “CROSS (fix) AT” or “AT OR

ABOVE/BELOW (altitude),” the manner in which the descent is executed to comply with the crossing altitude is at

the pilot’s discretion. This authorization to descend at pilot discretion is only applicable to that portion of the flight

to which the crossing altitude restriction applies, and the pilot is expected to comply with the crossing altitude as a

provision of the clearance. Any other clearance in which pilot execution is optional will so state “AT PILOT’S

DISCRETION.”

In case emergency authority is used to deviate from provisions of an ATC clearance, the pilot in command shall notify

ATC as soon as possible and obtain an amended clearance. In an emergency situation that does not result in a deviation

from the rules prescribed in 14 CFR Part 91 but requires ATC to give priority to an aircraft, the pilot of such aircraft

shall, when requested by ATC, make a report within 48 hours of such emergency situation to the manager of that ATC

facility.

The guiding principle is that the last ATC clearance has precedence over the previous ATC clearance. When the route

or altitude in a previously issued clearance is amended, the controller will restate applicable altitude restrictions. If

altitude to maintain is changed or restated, whether prior to departure or while airborne, and previously issued altitude

restrictions are omitted, those altitude restrictions are canceled, including departure procedures and Standard

Terminal Arrival (STAR) altitude restrictions.

Pilots of turbojet aircraft equipped with afterburner engines should advise ATC prior to takeoff if they intend to use

afterburning during their climb to the en route altitude. Often, the controller may be able to plan traffic to

accommodate a high-performance climb and allow the aircraft to climb to the planned altitude without restriction.

ORIGINAL

28-6

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

If an expedite climb or descent clearance is issued by ATC, and the altitude to maintain is subsequently changed or

restated without an expedite instruction, the expedite instruction is canceled. Expedite climb/descent normally

indicates to the pilot that the approximate best rate of climb/descent should be used without requiring an exceptional

change in aircraft handling characteristics. Normally controllers will inform pilots of the reason for an instruction to

expedite.

28.10 IFR SEPARATION STANDARDS

ATC effects separation of aircraft vertically by assigning different altitudes; longitudinally by providing an interval

expressed in time or distance between aircraft on the same, converging, or crossing courses; and laterally by assigning

different flight paths.

Separation will be provided between all aircraft operating on IFR flight plans except during that part of the flight

(outside Class B airspace or a TRSA) being conducted on a VFR-on-top/VFR conditions clearance. Under these

conditions, ATC may issue traffic advisories, but it is the sole responsibility of the pilot to be vigilant so as to see and

avoid other aircraft.

When radar is employed in the separation of aircraft at the same altitude, a minimum of 3 miles separation is provided

between aircraft operating within 40 miles of the radar antenna site, and 5 miles between aircraft operating beyond

40 miles from the antenna site. These minimums may be increased or decreased in certain specific situations.

Note

Certain separation standards are increased in the terminal environment

when Center Radar Approach Control (CERAP) is being utilized.

28.11 SPEED ADJUSTMENTS

ATC will issue speed adjustments to pilots of radar-controlled aircraft to achieve or maintain required or desired

spacing.

ATC will express all speed adjustments in terms of knots based on Indicated Airspeed (IAS) in 10-knot increments

except that at or above Flight Level (FL) 240, speeds may be expressed in terms of Mach numbers in 0.01-Mach

increments. The use of Mach numbers is restricted to turbojet aircraft with Mach meters.

Pilots complying with speed adjustments are expected to maintain a speed within plus or minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach

number of the specified speed.

Unless pilot concurrence is obtained, ATC requests for speed adjustments will be in accordance with the following

minimums:

1. To aircraft operating between FL 280 and 10,000 feet, a speed not less than 250 knots or the equivalent Mach

number.

2. To turbine-powered aircraft operating below 10,000 feet:

a. A speed not less than 210 knots, except:

b. Within 20 flying miles of the airport of intended landing, a speed not less than 170 knots.

3. Reciprocating engine or turboprop aircraft within 20 flying miles of the runway threshold of the airport of

intended landing, a speed not less than 150 knots.

4. To departing aircraft:

a. Turbine-powered aircraft, a speed not less than 230 knots.

b. Reciprocating engine aircraft, a speed not less than 150 knots.

28-7

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

When ATC combines a speed adjustment with a descent clearance, the sequence of delivery, with the word then

between, indicates the expected order of execution.

Note

The maximum speeds below 10,000 feet as established in 14 CFR Section

91.117 still apply. If there is any doubt concerning the manner in which such

a clearance is to be executed, request clarification from ATC.

If ATC determines (before an approach clearance is issued) that it is no longer necessary to apply speed adjustment

procedures, they will inform the pilot to resume normal speed. Approach clearances supersede any prior speed

adjustment assignments, and pilots are expected to make their own speed adjustments, as necessary, to complete the

approach;however under certain circumstances, it may be necessary for ATC to issue further speed adjustments after

approach clearance is issued to maintain separation between successive arrivals. Under such circumstances,

previously issued speed adjustments will be restated if that speed is to be maintained or additional speed adjustments

are requested. ATC must obtain pilot concurrence for speed adjustments after approach clearances are issued. Speed

adjustments should not be assigned inside the final approach fix on final or a point 5 miles from the runway, whichever

is closer to the runway.

The pilots retain the prerogative of rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC if the minimum safe airspeed

for any particular operation is greater than the speed adjustment.

Note

In such cases, pilots are expected to advise ATC of the speed that will be

used.

Pilots are reminded that they are responsible for rejecting the application of speed adjustment by ATC if, in their

opinion, it will cause them to exceed the maximum indicated airspeed prescribed by 14 CFR Section 91.117(a), (c)

and (d). IN SUCH CASES, THE PILOT IS EXPECTED TO SO INFORM ATC. Pilots operating at or above 10,000

feet MSL who are issued speed adjustments that exceed 250 knots IAS and are subsequently cleared below 10,000

feet MSL are expected to comply with 14 CFR Section 91.117(a).

Speed restrictions of 250 knots do not apply to U.S. registered aircraft operating beyond 12 nautical miles from the

coastline within the U.S. Flight Information Region, in Class E airspace below 10,000 feet MSL; however, in airspace

underlying a Class B airspace area designated for an airport, or in a VFR corridor designated through such as a Class

B airspace area, pilots are expected to comply with the 200-knot speed limit specified in 14 CFR Section 91.117(c).

For operations in a Class C and Class D surface area, ATC is authorized to request or approve a speed greater than

the maximum indicated airspeeds prescribed for operation within that airspace (14 CFR Section 91.117(b)).

Note

Pilots are expected to comply with the maximum speed of 200 knots when

operating beneath Class B airspace or in a Class B VFR corridor (14 CFR

Section 91.117(c) and (d)).

When in communications with the Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) or approach control facility, pilots

should, as a good operating practice, state any ATC-assigned speed restriction on initial radio contact associated with

an ATC communications frequency change.

28.12 RUNWAY SEPARATION

Tower controllers establish the sequence of arriving and departing aircraft by requiring them to adjust flight or ground

operation as necessary to achieve proper spacing. They may HOLD an aircraft short of the runway to achieve spacing

between it and an arriving aircraft; the controller may instruct a pilot to EXTEND DOWNWIND in order to establish

spacing from an arriving or departing aircraft. At times, a clearance may include the word IMMEDIATE (e.g.,

CLEARED FOR IMMEDIATE TAKEOFF). In such cases, IMMEDIATE is used for purposes of air traffic

separation. It is up to the pilot to refuse the clearance if, in the pilot’s opinion, compliance would adversely affect the

operation.

ORIGINAL

28-8

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

28.13 VISUAL SEPARATION

Visual separation is a means employed by ATC to separate aircraft in terminal areas and en route airspace in the NAS.

There are two methods employed to effect this separation:

1. The tower controller sees the aircraft involved and issues instructions, as necessary, to ensure the aircraft avoid

each other.

2. A pilot sees the other aircraft involved and, upon instructions from the controller, provides separation by

maneuvering the aircraft to avoid it. When pilots accept responsibility to maintain visual separation, they must

maintain constant visual surveillance and not pass the other aircraft until it is no longer a factor.

Note

Traffic is no longer a factor when, during approach phase, the other aircraft

is in the landing phase of flight or executes a missed approach; during

departure or en route, traffic is no longer a factor when the other aircraft

turns away or is on a diverging course.

A pilot acceptance of instructions to follow another aircraft or provide visual separation from it is an acknowledgment

that the pilot will maneuver the aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to maintain in-trail separation. In

operations conducted behind heavy jet aircraft, it is also an acknowledgment that the pilot accepts the responsibility

for wake turbulence separation.

Note

When a pilot has been told to follow another aircraft or to provide visual

separation from it, the pilot should promptly notify the controller if visual

contact with the other aircraft is lost or cannot be maintained or if the pilot

cannot accept the responsibility for the separation for any reason.

Scanning the sky for other aircraft is a key factor in collision avoidance. Pilots and copilots (or the right seat

passenger) should continuously scan to cover all areas of the sky visible from the cockpit. Pilots must develop an

effective scanning technique that maximizes their visual capabilities. Spotting a potential collision threat increases

directly as more time is spent looking outside the aircraft. One must use timesharing techniques to scan the

surrounding airspace effectively while monitoring instruments as well.

Since the eye can focus only on a narrow viewing area, effective scanning is accomplished with a series of short,

regularly spaced eye movements that bring successive areas of the sky into the central visual field. Each movement

should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area should be observed for at least 1 second to enable collision detection.

Although many pilots seem to prefer the method of horizontal back-and-forth scanning every pilot should develop

a scanning pattern that is not only comfortable but assures optimum effectiveness; however, pilots should remember

that they have a regulatory responsibility (14 CFR Section 91.113(a)) to see and avoid other aircraft when weather

conditions permit.

28.14 USE OF VISUAL CLEARING PROCEDURES

28.14.1 Before Takeoff

Prior to taxiing onto a runway or landing area in preparation for takeoff, pilots should scan the approach areas for

possible landing traffic and execute the appropriate clearing maneuvers to provide them a clear view of the approach

areas.

28.14.2 Climbs and Descents

During climbs and descents in flight conditions that permit visual detection of other traffic, pilots should execute

gentle banks, left and right, at a frequency that permits continuous visual scanning of the airspace about them.

28-9

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

28.14.3 Straight and Level

Sustained periods of straight-and-level flight in conditions that permit visual detection of other traffic should be

broken at intervals with appropriate clearing procedures to provide effective visual scanning.

28.14.4 Traffic Pattern

Entries into traffic patterns while descending create specific collision hazards and should be avoided.

28.14.5 Traffic at VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) Sites

All operators should emphasize the need for sustained vigilance in the vicinity of VORs and airway intersections due

to the convergence of traffic.

28.14.6 Training Operations

Operators of pilot training programs are urged to adopt the following practices:

1. Pilots undergoing flight instruction at all levels should be requested to verbalize clearing procedures (call out

clear left, right, above, or below) to instill and sustain the habit of vigilance during maneuvering.

2. High-wing airplane: Momentarily raise the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look.

3. Low-wing airplane: Momentarily lower the wing in the direction of the intended turn and look.

4. Appropriate clearing procedures should precede the execution of all turns including chandelles, lazy eights,

stalls, slow flight, climbs, straight and level, spins, and other combination maneuvers.

28.15 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS I AND II)

TCAS I provides only proximity warning to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of intruder aircraft. No

recommended avoidance maneuvers are provided nor authorized as a direct result of a TCAS I warning. It is intended

for use by smaller commuter aircraft holding 10 to 30 passenger seats and general aviation aircraft.

TCAS II provides Traffic Advisories (TAs) and Resolution Advisories (RAs). Resolution advisories provide

recommended maneuvers in a vertical direction (climb or descend only) to avoid conflicting traffic. Airline aircraft,

and larger commuter and business aircraft holding 31 passenger seats or more, use TCAS II equipment.

1. Each pilot who deviates from an ATC clearance in response to a TCAS II RA shall notify ATC of that deviation

as soon as practical and expeditiously return to the current ATC clearance when the traffic conflict is resolved.

2. Deviations from rules, policies, or clearances should be kept to the minimum necessary to satisfy a TCAS II

RA.

3. The serving IFR air traffic facility is not responsible to provide approved standard IFR separation to an aircraft

after a TCAS II RA maneuver until one of the following conditions exists:

a. The aircraft has returned to its assigned altitude and course.

b. Alternate ATC instructions have been issued.

TCAS does not alter or diminish the pilot’s basic authority and responsibility to ensure safe flight. Since TCAS does

not respond to aircraft that are not transponder equipped or aircraft with a transponder failure, TCAS alone does not

ensure safe separation in every case.

At this time, no air traffic service nor handling is predicated on the availability of TCAS equipment in the aircraft.

ORIGINAL

28-10

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

CHAPTER 29

En Route Procedures

29.1

AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL CENTER (ARTCC) COMMUNICATIONS

29.1.1 Direct Communications, Controllers and Pilots

Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs) are capable of direct communications with Instrument Flight Rules

(IFR) air traffic on certain frequencies. Maximum communications coverage is possible through the use of Remote

Center Air/Ground (RCAG) sites comprised of both VHF and Ultrahigh Frequency (UHF) transmitters and receivers.

These sites are located throughout the U.S. Although they may be several hundred miles away from the ARTCC, they

are remoted to the various ARTCCs by landlines or microwave links. Since IFR operations are expedited through the

use of direct communications, pilots are requested to use these frequencies strictly for communications pertinent to

the control of IFR aircraft. Flight plan filing, en route weather, weather forecasts, and similar data should be requested

through FSSs, company radio, or appropriate military facilities capable of performing these services.

An ARTCC is divided into sectors. Each sector is handled by one or a team of controllers and has its own sector

discrete frequency. As a flight progresses from one sector to another, the pilot is requested to change to the appropriate

sector discrete frequency.

29.1.2 Air Traffic Control (ATC) Frequency Change Procedures

The following phraseology will be used by controllers to effect a frequency change:

Example:

(Aircraft identification) contact (facility name or location name and terminal function) (frequency) at (time, fix, or

altitude).

Note

Pilots are expected to maintain a listening watch on the transferring

controller frequency until the time, fix, or altitude specified. ATC will omit

frequency change restrictions whenever pilot compliance is expected upon

receipt.

The following phraseology should be utilized by pilots for establishing contact with the designated facility:

1. When operating in a radar environment:

a. On initial contact, the pilot should inform the controller of the aircraft assigned altitude preceded by the

words “LEVEL,” or “CLIMBING TO,” or “DESCENDING TO,” as appropriate, and the aircraft present

vacating altitude, if applicable.

Examples:

(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEVEL (altitude or flight level).

(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), LEAVING

(exact altitude or flight level), CLIMBING TO or

DESCENDING TO (altitude of flight level).

29-1

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Note

Exact altitude or flight level means to the nearest 100-foot increment. Exact

altitude or flight level reports on initial contact provide ATC with

information required prior to using Mode C altitude information for

separation purposes.

2. When operating in a nonradar environment:

a. On initial contact, the pilot should inform the controller of the aircraft present position, altitude, and time

estimate for the next reporting point.

Example:

(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position), (altitude), ESTIMATING (reporting point) AT (time).

b. After initial contact, when a position report will be made, the pilot should give the controller a complete

position report.

Example:

(Name) CENTER, (aircraft identification), (position), (time), (altitude), (type of flight plan), (Estimated Time of

Arrival (ETA) and name of next reporting point), (the name of the next succeeding reporting point), AND (remarks).

At times, controllers will ask pilots to verify they are at a particular altitude. The phraseology used will be: “VERIFY

AT (altitude).” In climbing or descending situations, controllers may ask pilots to “VERIFY ASSIGNED ALTITUDE

AS (altitude).” Pilots should confirm that they are at the altitude stated by the controller or the assigned altitude is

correct as stated. If this is not the case, they should inform the controller of the actual altitude being maintained or

the different assigned altitude.

CAUTION

Pilots should not take action to change their actual altitude or different

assigned altitude to the altitude stated in the controller’s verification request

unless the controller specifically authorizes a change.

29.1.3 ARTCC Radio Frequency Outage

ARTCCs normally have at least one backup radio receiver and transmitter system for each frequency, which can

usually be placed into service quickly with little or no disruption of ATC service. Occasionally, technical problems

may cause a delay, but switchover seldom takes more than 60 seconds. When it appears the outage will not be quickly

remedied, the ARTCC will usually request a nearby aircraft, if there is one, to switch to the affected frequency to

broadcast communications instructions; therefore, it is important that the pilot wait at least 1 minute before deciding

that the ARTCC has actually experienced a radio frequency failure. When such an outage does occur, the pilot should,

if workload and equipment capability permit, maintain a listening watch on the affected frequency while attempting

to comply with the following recommended communications procedures:

1. If two-way communications cannot be established with the ARTCC after changing frequencies, a pilot should

attempt to recontact the transferring controller for the assignment of an alternative frequency or other

instructions.

2. When an ARTCC radio frequency failure occurs after two-way communications have been established, the

pilot should attempt to reestablish contact with the center on any other known ARTCC frequency, preferably

that of the next responsible sector, when practicable, and ask for instructions; however, when the next normal

frequency change along the route is known to involve another ATC facility, the pilot should contact that facility,

if feasible, for instructions. If communications cannot be reestablished by either method, the pilot is expected

to request communications instructions from the FSS appropriate to the route of flight.

ORIGINAL

29-2

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Note

The exchange of information between an aircraft and an ARTCC through

an FSS is quicker than relay via company radio because the FSS has direct

interphone lines to the responsible ARTCC sector. Accordingly, when

circumstances dictate a choice between the two, during an ARTCC

frequency outage, relay via FSS radio is recommended.

29.2

POSITION REPORTING

The safety and effectiveness of traffic control depends to a large extent on accurate position reporting. In order to

provide the proper separation and expedite aircraft movements, ATC must be able to make accurate estimates of the

progress of every aircraft operating on an IFR flight plan.

29.2.1 Position Identification

When a position report is to be made passing a VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) radio facility, the time reported

should be the time at which the first complete reversal of the TO-FROM indicator is accomplished.

When a position report is made passing a facility by means of an airborne ADF, the time reported should be the time

at which the indicator makes a complete reversal.

When an aural or a light panel indication is used to determine the time passing a reporting point, such as a fan marker,

Z marker, cone of silence, or intersection of range courses, the time should be noted when the signal is first received

and again when it ceases. The mean of these two times should then be taken as the actual time over the fix.

If a position is given with respect to distance and direction from a reporting point, the distance and direction should

be computed as accurately as possible.

Except for terminal area transition purposes, position reports or navigation with reference to aids not established for

use in the structure in which flight is being conducted will not normally be required by ATC.

29.2.2 Position Reporting Points

Code of Federal Regulations (CFRs) require pilots to maintain a listening watch on the appropriate frequency and,

unless operating under the provisions of subparagraph c, to furnish position reports passing certain reporting points.

Reporting points are indicated by symbols on en route charts. The designated compulsory reporting point symbol is

a solid triangle

and the “on request” reporting point symbol is an open triangle . Reports passing an “on request”

reporting point are only necessary when requested by ATC.

29.2.3 Position Reporting Requirements

29.2.3.1 Flights Along Airways or Routes

A position report is required by all flights regardless of altitude, including those operating in accordance with an ATC

clearance specifying “VFR-on-top,” over each designated compulsory reporting point along the route being flown.

29.2.3.2 Flights Along a Direct Route

Regardless of the altitude or flight level being flown, including flights operating in accordance with an ATC clearance

specifying “VFR-on-top,” pilots shall report over each reporting point used in the flight plan to define the route of

flight.

29-3

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

29.2.3.3 Flights in a Radar Environment

When informed by ATC that their aircraft are in “RADAR CONTACT,” pilots should discontinue position reports

over designated reporting points. They should resume normal position reporting when ATC advises “RADAR

CONTACT LOST” or “RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED.”

29.2.4 Position Report Items

Position reports should include the following items:

1. Identification.

2. Position.

3. Time.

4. Altitude or flight level (include actual altitude or flight level when operating on a clearance specifying

VFR-on-top).

5. Type of flight plan (not required in IFR position reports made directly to ARTCCs or approach control).

6. ETA and name of next reporting point.

7. The name only of the next succeeding reporting point along the route of flight.

8. Pertinent remarks.

29.3

ADDITIONAL REPORTS

The following reports should be made to ATC or FSS facilities without a specific ATC request:

29.3.1 At All Times

1. When vacating any previously assigned altitude or flight level for a newly assigned altitude or flight level.

2. When an altitude change will be made if operating on a clearance specifying VFR-on-top.

3. When unable to climb/descend at a rate of at least 500 feet per minute.

4. When approach has been missed. (Request clearance for specific action [e.g., to alternative airport, another

approach, etc.].)

5. Change in the average true airspeed (at cruising altitude) when it varies by 5 percent or 10 knots (whichever

is greater) from that filed in the flight plan.

6. The time and altitude or flight level upon reaching a holding fix or point to which cleared.

7. When leaving any assigned holding fix or point.

Note

The reports in steps 6 and 7 may be omitted by pilots of aircraft involved

in instrument training at military terminal area facilities when radar service

is being provided.

ORIGINAL

29-4

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

8. Any loss, in controlled airspace, of VOR, Tactical Air Navigation (TACAN), ADF, low-frequency navigation

receiver capability, Global Positioning System

(GPS) anomalies while using installed IFR-certified

GPS/GNSS receivers, complete or partial loss of ILS receiver capability, or impairment of air/ground

communications capability. Reports should include aircraft identification, equipment affected, degree to which

the capability to operate under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the nature and extent of assistance

desired from ATC.

Note

D Other equipment installed in an aircraft may effectively impair safety

and/or the ability to operate under IFR. If such equipment (e.g., airborne

weather radar) malfunctions and in the pilot’s judgment either safety or IFR

capabilities are affected, reports should be made as above.

D When reporting GPS anomalies, include the location and altitude of the

anomaly. Be specific when describing the location and include duration of

the anomaly if necessary.

9. Any information relating to the safety of flight.

29.3.1.1 When Not in Radar Contact

1. When leaving final approach fix inbound on final approach (nonprecision approach) or when leaving the outer

marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound on final approach (precision approach).

2. A corrected estimate at any time it becomes apparent that an estimate as previously submitted is in error in

excess of 3 minutes.

Pilots encountering weather conditions that have not been forecast, or hazardous conditions which have been forecast,

are expected to forward a report of such weather to ATC.

29.4

AIRWAYS AND ROUTE SYSTEMS

Two fixed route systems are established for air navigation purposes: the VOR and Low/Medium Frequency (L/MF)

system, and the jet route system. To the extent possible, these route systems are aligned in an overlying manner to

facilitate transition between each.

1. The VOR and L/MF Airway System consists of airways designated from 1,200 feet above the surface (or in

some instances higher) up to but not including 18,000 feet Mean Sea Level (MSL). These airways are depicted

on en route low altitude charts.

Note

The altitude limits of a Victor airway should not be exceeded except to

effect transition within or between route structures.

a. Except in Alaska and coastal North Carolina, the VOR airways are predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC

navigation aids; are depicted in blue on aeronautical charts; and are identified by a V (Victor) followed by

the airway number (e.g., V12).

Note

Segments of VOR airways in Alaska and North Carolina (V56, V290) are

based on L/MF navigation aids and charted in brown instead of blue on en

route charts.

(1) A segment of an airway that is common to two or more routes carries the numbers of all the airways

that coincide for that segment. When such is the case, pilots filing a flight plan need to indicate only

that airway number for the route filed.

29-5

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

(2) With respect to position reporting, reporting points are designated for VOR Airway Systems. Flights

using Victor airways will report over these points unless advised otherwise by ATC.

b. The L/MF airways (colored airways) are predicated solely on L/MF navigation aids; are depicted in brown

on aeronautical charts; and are identified by color name and number (e.g., Amber One). Green and red

airways are plotted east and west. Amber and blue airways are plotted north and south.

Note

Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway system exists only in

the state of Alaska. All other such airways formerly so designated in the

conterminous U.S. have been rescinded.

2. The jet route system consists of jet routes established from 18,000 feet MSL to Flight Level (FL) 450 inclusive.

a. These routes are depicted on en route high altitude charts. Jet routes are depicted in black on aeronautical

charts and are identified by a J (Jet) followed by the airway number (e.g., J12). Jet routes, as VOR airways,

are predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC navigation facilities (except in Alaska).

Note

Segments of jet routes in Alaska are based on L/MF navigation aids and are

charted in brown color instead of black on en route charts.

b. With respect to position reporting, reporting points are designated for jet route systems. Flights using jet

routes will report over these points unless otherwise advised by ATC.

29.4.1 Area Navigation (RNAV) Routes

1. RNAV is a method of navigation that permits aircraft operations on any desired course within the coverage of

station-referenced navigation signals or within the limits of a self-contained system capability or combination

of these.

2. Fixed RNAV routes are permanent, published routes that can be flight planned for use by aircraft with RNAV

capability. A previously established fixed RNAV route system has been terminated except for a few high

altitude routes in Alaska.

3. Random RNAV routes are direct routes, based on area navigation capability, between waypoints defined in

terms of latitude/longitude coordinates, degree-distance fixes, or offsets from established routes/airways at a

specified distance and direction. Radar monitoring by ATC is required on all random RNAV routes.

Operation above FL 450 may be conducted on a point-to-point basis. Navigational guidance is provided on an area

basis utilizing those facilities depicted on the en route high altitude charts.

29.4.2 Radar Vectors

Controllers may vector aircraft within controlled airspace for separation purposes, noise abatement considerations,

when an operational advantage will be realized by the pilot or the controller, or when requested by the pilot. Vectors

outside of controlled airspace will be provided only on pilot request. Pilots will be advised as to what the vector is

to achieve when the vector is controller initiated and will take the aircraft off a previously assigned nonradar route.

To the extent possible, aircraft operating on RNAV routes will be allowed to remain on their own navigation.

When flying in Canadian airspace, pilots are cautioned to review Canadian Air Regulations.

1. Special attention should be given to the parts that differ from U.S. CFRs.

a. The Canadian Airways Class B airspace restriction is an example. Class B airspace is all controlled low level

airspace above 12,500 feet MSL or the Minimum En Route Altitude (MEA), whichever is higher, within

which only IFR and controlled Visual Flight Rules (VFR) flights are permitted. (Low level airspace means

an airspace designated and defined as such in the Designated Airspace Handbook.)

ORIGINAL

29-6

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

b. Regardless of the weather conditions or the height of the terrain, no person shall operate an aircraft under

VFR conditions within Class B airspace except in accordance with a clearance for VFR flight issued by

ATC.

c. The requirement for entry into Class B airspace is a student pilot permit (under the guidance or control of

a flight instructor).

d. VFR flight requires visual contact with the ground or water at all times.

2. Segments of VOR airways and high level routes in Canada are based on L/MF navigation aids and are charted

in brown color instead of blue on en route charts.

29.5

AIRWAY OR ROUTE COURSE CHANGES

Pilots of aircraft are required to adhere to airways or routes being flown. Special attention must be given to this

requirement during course changes. Each course change consists of variables that make the technique applicable in

each case a matter only the pilot can resolve. Some variables that must be considered are turn radius, wind effect,

airspeed, degree of turn, and cockpit instrumentation. An early turn, as illustrated in Figure 29-1, is one method of

adhering to airways or routes. The use of any available cockpit instrumentation, such as Distance Measuring

Equipment (DME), may be used by the pilot to lead the turn when making course changes. This is consistent with

the intent of 14 CFR Section 91.181, which requires pilots to operate along the centerline of an airway and along the

direct course between navigational aids or fixes.

Turns that begin at or after fix passage may exceed airway or route boundaries. Figure 29-1 contains an example flight

track depicting this, together with an example of an early turn.

Without such actions as leading a turn, aircraft operating in excess of 290 knots True Airspeed (TAS) can exceed the

normal airway or route boundaries depending on the amount of course change required, wind direction and velocity,

Figure 29-1. Adhering to Airways or Routes

29-7

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

the character of the turn fix (DME, overhead navigation aid, or intersection), and the pilot technique in making a

course change. For example, a flight operating at 17,000 feet MSL with a TAS of 400 knots, a 25-degree bank, and

a course change of more than 40 degrees would exceed the width of the airway or route (e.g., 4 nautical miles each

side of centerline); however, in the airspace below 18,000 feet MSL, operations in excess of 290 knots TAS are not

prevalent and the provision of additional IFR separation in all course change situations for the occasional aircraft

making a turn in excess of 290 knots TAS creates an unacceptable waste of airspace and imposes a penalty upon the

preponderance of traffic that operates at low speeds. Consequently, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)

expects pilots to lead turns and take other actions they consider necessary during course changes to adhere as closely

as possible to the airways or route being flown.

Due to the high airspeeds used at 18,000 feet MSL and above, FAA provides additional IFR separation protection

for course changes made at such altitude levels.

29.6

CHANGEOVER POINT (COP)

Changeover Points (COPs) are prescribed for Federal airways, jet routes, area navigation routes, or other direct routes

for which an MEA is designated under 14 CFR Part 95. The COP is a point along the route or airway segment between

two adjacent navigation facilities or waypoints where changeover in navigation guidance should occur. At this point,

the pilot should change navigation receiver frequency from the station behind the aircraft to the station ahead.

The COP is normally located midway between the navigation facilities for straight route segments or at the

intersection of radials or courses forming a dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When the COP is not located

at the midway point, aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and give the mileage to the radio aids.

COPs are established for the purpose of preventing loss of navigation guidance, to prevent frequency interference

from other facilities, and to prevent use of different facilities by different aircraft in the same airspace. Pilots are urged

to observe COPs to the fullest extent.

29.7

REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMUMS (RVSM)

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (RVSM) reduce the vertical separation between FL 290 to 410 from 2,000

feet to 1,000 feet and make six additional FLs available for operation. The additional FLs enable more aircraft to fly

more time/fuel efficient profiles and provide the potential for enhanced airspace capacity. RVSM operators must

receive authorization from the appropriate civil aviation authority. RVSM aircraft must meet required equipage and

altitude-keeping performance standards. Operators must operate in accordance with RVSM policies/procedures

applicable to the airspace where they are flying. Additional information is found in the Aeronautical Information

Manual/Federal Aviation Regulation (AIM/FAR).

29.8

HOLDING

Whenever an aircraft is cleared to a fix other than the destination airport and delay is expected, it is the responsibility

of the ATC controller to issue complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is charted), an EFC, and best estimate

of any additional en route/terminal delay.

Note

Only those holding patterns depicted on U.S. government or commercially

produced (meeting FAA requirements) low/high altitude en route, area, or

Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) charts should be used.

If the holding pattern is charted and the controller does not issue complete holding instructions, the pilot is expected

to hold as depicted on the appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the controller may omit all holding

instructions except the charted holding direction and the statement “AS PUBLISHED” (e.g., “HOLD EAST AS

PUBLISHED”). Controllers shall always issue complete holding instructions when pilots request them.

ORIGINAL

29-8

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask ATC for holding

instructions prior to reaching the fix. This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an aircraft entering a holding

pattern other than that desired by ATC. If unable to obtain holding instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to

frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), enter a standard pattern on the course on which the aircraft approached

the fix and request further clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the

clearance limit will be protected so that separation will be provided as required.

When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not been received, the

pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that the aircraft will cross the fix, initially, at or below the maximum

holding airspeed.

When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as possible and, whenever

possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.

Pilots should report to ATC the time and altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the clearance limit and report

leaving the clearance limit.

When holding at a VOR station, pilots should begin the turn to the outbound leg at the time of the first complete

reversal of the TO-FROM indicator.

Patterns at the most generally used holding fixes are depicted (charted) on U.S. Government or commercially

produced (meeting FAA requirements) low/high altitude en route, area, and STAR charts. Pilots are expected to hold

in the pattern depicted unless specifically advised otherwise by ATC.

Note

Holding patterns that protect for a maximum holding airspeed other than

the standard may be depicted by an icon, unless otherwise depicted. The

icon is a standard holding pattern symbol (racetrack) with the airspeed

restriction shown in the center. In other cases, the airspeed restriction will

be depicted next to the standard holding pattern symbol.

An ATC clearance requiring an aircraft to hold at a fix where the pattern is not charted will include the following

information (Figure 29-2):

1. Direction of holding from the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (e.g., N, NE, E, SE, etc.).

2. Holding fix (the fix may be omitted if included at the beginning of the transmission as the clearance limit).

3. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.

4. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used (leg length will be specified in minutes on pilot request or

if the controller considers it necessary).

5. Direction of turn if left turns are to be made, the pilot requests, or the controller considers it necessary.

6. Time to expect further clearance and any pertinent additional delay information.

29-9

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

2. Holding patterns may be restricted to a maximum airspeed of 175 KIAS. This nonstandard pattern will be

depicted by an icon. Holding patterns restricted to 175 KIAS will generally be found on Instrument Approach

Procedures (IAPs) applicable to Category A and B aircraft only.

3. Holding patterns at United States Air Force (USAF) airfields only — 310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise

depicted.

4. Holding patterns at Navy fields only — 230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.

5. When a climb-in hold is specified by a published procedure (e.g., “Climb-in holding pattern to depart XYZ

VORTAC at or above 10,000” or “All aircraft climb-in TRUCK holding pattern to cross TRUCK Int at or above

11,500 before proceeding on course”), additional obstacle protection area has been provided to allow for

greater airspeeds in the climb for those aircraft requiring them. The holding pattern template for a maximum

airspeed of 310 KIAS has been used for the holding pattern if there are no airspeed restrictions on the holding

pattern as specified in step 2 of this section. Where the holding pattern is restricted to a maximum airspeed of

175 KIAS, the 200 KIAS holding pattern template has been applied for published climb-in hold procedures

for altitudes 6,000 feet and below and the 230 KIAS holding pattern template has been applied for altitudes

above 6,000 feet. The airspeed limitations in 14 CFR Section 91.117, Aircraft Speed, still apply.

The following phraseology may be used by an ATCS to advise a pilot of the maximum holding airspeed for a holding

pattern airspace area:

PHRASEOLOGY — (AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION) (holding instructions, when needed) MAXIMUM

HOLDING AIRSPEED IS (speed in knots).

29.8.3 Entry Procedures

(Figure 29-4.)

29.8.3.1 Parallel Procedure

When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a

heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the nonholding side for 1 minute, turn in the direction of the

holding pattern through more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.

29.8.3.2 Teardrop Procedure

When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the

fix, turn outbound to a heading for a 30-degree teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period

of 1 minute, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course.

29.8.3.3 Direct Entry Procedure

When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (c), the direct entry procedure would be to fly directly

to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern.

Although other entry procedures may enable the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain within protected

airspace, the parallel, teardrop, and direct entries are the procedures for entry and holding recommended by the FAA.

29.8.4 Timing

29.8.4.1 Inbound Leg

1. At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.

2. Above 14,000 feet MSL: 1-1/2 minutes.

ORIGINAL

29-12

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Note

The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or 1-1/2 minutes

(appropriate to altitude). Timing for subsequent outbound legs should be

adjusted, as necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time. Pilots may use

any navigational means available (e.g., DME, RNAV, etc.), to ensure the

appropriate inbound leg times.

29.8.4.2 Outbound Leg

Timing begins over or abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing

when turn to outbound is completed.

29.8.5 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

DME holding is subject to the same entry and holding procedures except that distances (nautical miles) are used in

lieu of time values. The outbound course of a DME holding pattern is called the outbound leg of the pattern. The length

of the outbound leg will be specified by the controller. The end of the outbound leg is determined by the odometer

reading (Figures 29-5 and 29-6).

Note

D When the inbound course is toward the Navigation Aid (NAVAID), the fix

distance is 10 nm, and the leg length is 5 nm, the end of the outbound leg

will be reached when the DME reads 15 nm.

D When the inbound course is away from the NAVAID, the fix distance is

27 nm, and the leg length is 8 nm, the end of the outbound leg will be

reached when the DME reads 20 nm.

Figure 29-4. Holding Pattern Entry Procedures

29-13

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

29.8.6 Pilot Action

Start speed reduction when 3 minutes or less from the holding fix. Cross the holding fix, initially, at or below the

maximum holding airspeed.

Make all turns during entry and while holding at:

3 degrees per second; or

30-degree bank angle; or

25-degree bank, provided a flight director system is used.

Note

Use whichever requires the least bank angle.

Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs. When outbound, triple

the inbound drift correction to avoid major turning adjustments (e.g., if correcting left by 8 degrees when inbound,

correct right by 24 degrees when outbound).

Determine entry turn from aircraft heading upon arrival at the holding fix; ±5 degrees in heading is considered to be

within allowable good operating limits for determining entry.

Advise ATC immediately what increased airspeed is necessary, if any, due to turbulence, icing, etc., or if unable to

accomplish any part of the holding procedures. When such higher speeds become no longer necessary, operate

according to the appropriate published holding speed and notify ATC.

29.8.7 Nonstandard Holding Pattern

Fix end and outbound end turns are made to the left. Entry procedures to a nonstandard pattern are oriented in relation

to the 70-degree line on the holding side just as in the standard pattern.

Figure 29-5. Inbound Leg Toward NAVAID

ORIGINAL

29-14

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Figure 29-6. Inbound Leg Away from NAVAID

When holding at a fix and instructions are received specifying the time of departure from the fix, the pilot should

adjust the aircraft flightpath within the limits of the established holding pattern in order to leave the fix at the exact

time specified. After departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be resumed with respect to other governing speed

requirements, such as terminal area speed limits, specific ATC requests, etc. Where the fix is associated with an

instrument approach and timed approaches are in effect, a procedure turn shall not be executed unless the pilot advises

ATC, as aircraft holding are expected to proceed inbound on final approach directly from the holding pattern when

approach clearance is received.

Radar surveillance of outer fix holding pattern airspace areas.

1. Whenever aircraft are holding at an outer fix, ATC will usually provide radar surveillance of the outer fix

holding pattern airspace area, or any portion of it, if it is shown on the controller radar scope.

2. The controller will attempt to detect any holding aircraft that stray outside the holding pattern airspace area

and will assist any detected aircraft to return to the assigned airspace area.

Note

Many factors could prevent ATC from providing this additional service,

such as workload, number of targets, precipitation, ground clutter, and radar

system capability. These circumstances may make it unfeasible to maintain

radar identification of aircraft to detect aircraft straying from the holding

pattern. The provision of this service depends entirely upon whether

controllers believe they are in a position to provide it and does not relieve

pilots of their responsibility to adhere to an accepted ATC clearance.

29-15

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

3. If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the published Minimum

Holding Altitude (MHA) and subsequently cleared for the approach, the pilot may descend to the published

minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern would only be a segment of the IAP if it is published on the

instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.

For those holding patterns where there are no published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon receiving an

approach clearance, must maintain the last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern and established on the

inbound course; thereafter, the published minimum altitude of the route segment being flown will apply. It is expected

that the pilot will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a normal descent on the inbound course.

29.9

UPDATING OF WEATHER DATA

Pilots shall periodically determine that their intended route of flight remains clear of aviation Severe Weather Watch

Bulletins (WWs) and that weather forecasts for each successive intermediate destination and alternate, when required,

continue to satisfy the minimums established for the aircraft and the filing status (IFR/VFR). These updates are

readily available from U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force weather activities through use of the Pilot-to-Metro

Service (PMSV), Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) broadcasts, selected VOR and low-frequency

NAVAIDs, and data provided by Air Route Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs) and Flight Service Stations (FSSs)

in the form of weather advisory broadcasts and Hazardous In-Flight Weather Advisory Services (HIWAS). When

dealing with situations where adverse weather is involved, such as weather associated with Significant

Meteorological Information (SIGMETs) or WWs, pilots need to obtain more specific guidance or further technical

evaluation of meteorological conditions that could affect the flight. When faced with this situation, the pilot should

initiate communications with one of the activities listed below (in order of preference):

1. Military Pilot-to-Metro Service (PMSV).

2. FAA En Route Flight Advisory Service (EFAS).

3. The nearest FSS.

When utilizing full-service PMSV or EFAS, the pilot will have access to a qualified meteorological forecaster. Most

PMSVs and FSSs are 24 hour facilities, but EFAS runs for specific daytime hours and pertains only to the en route

portion of flight. EFAS is still the preferred method of obtaining en route hazardous weather information if the pilot

cannot utilize PMSV because, unlike FSSs, EFASs are dedicated specifically to weather updates.

ORIGINAL

29-16

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

CHAPTER 30

Terminal Procedures

30.1

STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL (STAR), FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROCEDURES

(FMSP) FOR ARRIVALS

A Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) is an Air Traffic Control (ATC) coded IFR arrival route established for

application to arriving Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) aircraft destined for certain airports. FMSPs for arrivals serve

the same purpose but are only used by aircraft equipped with a Flight Management System (FMS). The purpose of

both is to simplify clearance delivery procedures and facilitate transition between en route and instrument approach

procedures.

1. STARs/FMSPs may have mandatory speeds and/or crossing altitudes published. Other STARs may have

planning information depicted to inform pilots what clearances or restrictions to “expect.” “Expect”

altitudes/speeds are not considered STAR/FMSP crossing restrictions until verbally issued by ATC.

Note

The “expect” altitudes/speeds are published so that pilots may have the

information for planning purposes. These altitudes/speeds should not be

used in the event of lost communications unless ATC has specifically

advised the pilot to expect these altitudes/speeds as part of a further

clearance.

2. Pilots navigating on a STAR/FMSP shall maintain last assigned altitude until receiving authorization to

descend so as to comply with all published/issued restrictions. This authorization will contain the phrase

“DESCEND VIA.”

a. A “descend via” clearance authorizes pilots to navigate vertically and laterally, in accordance with the

depicted procedure, to meet published restrictions. Vertical navigation is at pilot discretion; however,

adherence to published altitude crossing restrictions and speeds is mandatory unless otherwise cleared.

(Minimum En Route Altitudes [MEAs] are not considered restrictions; however, pilots are expected to

remain above MEAs.)

b. Pilots cleared for vertical navigation using the phrase “descend via” shall inform ATC upon initial contact

with a new frequency.

Pilots of IFR aircraft destined to locations for which STARs have been published may be issued a clearance containing

a STAR whenever ATC deems it appropriate.

Use of STARs requires pilot possession of at least the approved chart. As with any ATC clearance or portion thereof,

it is the responsibility of each pilot to accept or refuse an issued STAR. Pilots should notify ATC if they do not wish

to use a STAR by placing “NO STAR” in the remarks section of the flight plan or by the less desirable method of

verbally stating the same to ATC.

STAR charts are published in the Terminal Procedures Publications (TPPs) and are available on subscription from

the National Aeronautical Charting Office, AVN-500.

30-1

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

30.2

LOCAL FLOW TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

This program is a continuing effort by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to enhance safety, minimize the

impact of aircraft noise, and conserve aviation fuel. The enhancement of safety and reduction of noise is achieved

in this program by minimizing low altitude maneuvering of arriving turbojet and turboprop aircraft weighing more

than 12,500 pounds and by permitting departure aircraft to climb to higher altitudes sooner as arrivals are operating

at higher altitudes at the points where their flightpaths cross. The application of these procedures also reduces

exposure time between controlled aircraft and uncontrolled aircraft at the lower altitudes in and around the terminal

environment. Fuel conservation is accomplished by absorbing any necessary arrival delays for aircraft included in

this program operating at the higher and more fuel-efficient altitudes.

A fuel-efficient descent is basically an uninterrupted descent (except where level flight is required for speed

adjustment) from cruising altitude to the point when level flight is necessary for the pilot to stabilize the aircraft on

final approach. The procedure for a fuel-efficient descent is based on an altitude loss that is most efficient for the

majority of aircraft being served. This will generally result in a descent gradient window of 250 to 350 feet per nautical

mile.

When crossing altitudes and speed restrictions are issued verbally or are depicted on a chart, ATC will expect the pilot

to descend first to the crossing altitude and then reduce speed. Verbal clearances for descent will normally permit an

uninterrupted descent in accordance with the procedure as described above. Acceptance of a charted fuel-efficient

descent (Runway Profile Descent) clearance requires the pilot to adhere to the altitudes, speeds, and headings depicted

on the charts unless otherwise instructed by ATC.

Note

Pilots receiving a clearance for a fuel-efficient descent are expected to

advise ATC if they do not have runway profile descent charts published for

that airport or are unable to comply with the clearance.

30.3

APPROACH CONTROL

Approach control is responsible for controlling all instrument flight operating within its area of responsibility.

Approach control may serve one or more airfields, and control is exercised primarily by direct pilot and controller

communications. Prior to arriving at the destination radio facility, instructions will be received from the Air Route

Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) to contact approach control on a specified frequency.

30.3.1 Radar Approach Control

1. Where radar is approved for approach control service, it is used not only for radar approaches (Airport

Surveillance Radar [ASR] and Precision Approach Radar [PAR]) but is also used to provide vectors in

conjunction with published nonradar approaches based on radio Navigation Aids (NAVAIDs) (Instrument

Landing System

[ILS], Microwave Landing System

[MLS], VHF Omnidirectional Range

[VOR],

Non-Directional Beacon [NDB], Tactical Air Navigation [TACAN]). Radar vectors can provide course

guidance and expedite traffic to the final approach course of any established Instrument Approach Procedure

(IAP) or to the traffic pattern for a visual approach. Approach control facilities that provide this radar service

will operate in the following manner:

a. Arriving aircraft are either cleared to an outer fix most appropriate to the route being flown with vertical

separation and, if required, given holding information or, when radar handoffs are effected between the

ARTCC and approach control, or between two approach control facilities, aircraft are cleared to the airport

or to a fix so located that the handoff will be completed prior to the time the aircraft reaches the fix. When

radar handoffs are utilized, successive arriving flights may be handed off to approach control with radar

separation in lieu of vertical separation.

ORIGINAL

30-2

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

b. After release to approach control, aircraft are vectored to the final approach course (ILS, MLS, VOR, ADF,

etc.). Radar vectors and altitude or flight levels will be issued as required for spacing and separating aircraft;

therefore, pilots must not deviate from the headings issued by approach control. Aircraft will normally be

informed when it is necessary to vector across the final approach course for spacing or other reasons. If

approach course crossing is imminent and the pilot has not been informed that the aircraft will be vectored

across the final approach course, the pilot should query the controller.

c. The pilot is not expected to turn inbound on the final approach course unless an approach clearance has been

issued. This clearance will normally be issued with the final vector for interception of the final approach

course, and the vector will be such as to enable the pilot to establish the aircraft on the final approach course

prior to reaching the final approach fix.

d. In the case of aircraft already inbound on the final approach course, approach clearance will be issued prior

to the aircraft reaching the final approach fix. When established inbound on the final approach course, radar

separation will be maintained and the pilot will be expected to complete the approach utilizing the approach

aid designated in the clearance (ILS, MLS, VOR, radio beacons, etc.) as the primary means of navigation;

therefore, once established on the final approach course, pilots must not deviate from it unless a clearance

to do so is received from ATC.

e. After passing the final approach fix on final approach, aircraft are expected to continue inbound on the final

approach course and complete the approach or effect the missed approach procedure published for that

airport.

ARTCCs are approved for and may provide approach control services to specific airports. The radar systems

used by these centers do not provide the same precision as an ASR/PAR used by approach control facilities

and towers, and the update rate is not as fast; therefore, pilots may be requested to report established on the

final approach course.

Whether aircraft are vectored to the appropriate final approach course or provide their own navigation on

published routes to it, radar service is automatically terminated when the landing is completed or when

instructed to change to advisory frequency at uncontrolled airports, whichever occurs first.

30.4

ADVANCE INFORMATION ON INSTRUMENT APPROACH

When landing at airports with approach control services and where two or more IAPs are published, pilots will be

provided in advance of their arrival with the type of approach to expect or informed that they may be vectored for

a visual approach. This information will be broadcast either by a controller or on Automatic Terminal Information

Service (ATIS). It will not be furnished when the visibility is 3 miles or better and the ceiling is at or above the highest

initial approach altitude established for any low-altitude IAP for the airport.

The purpose of this information is to aid the pilot in planning arrival actions; however, it is not an ATC clearance or

commitment and is subject to change. Pilots should bear in mind that fluctuating weather, shifting winds, blocked

runway, etc. are conditions that may result in changes to approach information previously received. It is important

that pilots advise ATC immediately if they are unable to execute the approach ATC advised will be used or if they

prefer another type of approach.

Aircraft destined to uncontrolled airports, which have automated weather data with broadcast capability, should

monitor the (Automated Surface Observing System/Automated Weather Observing System [ASOS/AWOS])

frequency to ascertain the current weather for the airport. Pilots shall advise ATC when They have received the

broadcast weather and state their intentions.

When making an IFR approach to an airport not served by a tower or FSS, after ATC advises “CHANGE TO

ADVISORY FREQUENCY APPROVED,” you should broadcast your intentions, including the type of approach

being executed, your position, and when over the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision approach) or when over

the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach). Continue to monitor the

appropriate frequency (e.g., UNICOM) for reports from other pilots.

30-3

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

30.5

INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE CHARTS

14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Section 91.175(a), Instrument Approaches to Civil Airports, requires the use

of Standard Instrument Approach Procedures (SIAPs) prescribed for the airport in 14 CFR Part 97 unless otherwise

authorized by the Administrator (including ATC). 14 CFR Section 91.175(g), Military Airports, requires civil pilots

flying into or out of military airports to comply with the IAP and takeoff and landing minimums prescribed by the

authority having jurisdiction at those airports.

All IAPs (standard and special, civil and military) are based on joint civil and military criteria contained in the

U.S. Standard for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS). The design of IAPs based on criteria contained

in TERPS takes into account the interrelationship between airports, facilities, and the surrounding

environment, terrain, obstacles, noise sensitivity, etc. Appropriate altitudes, courses, headings, distances, and

other limitations are specified and, once approved, the procedures are published and distributed by government

and commercial cartographers as instrument approach charts.

Not all IAPs are published in chart form. Radar IAPs are established where requirements and facilities exist

but they are printed in tabular form in appropriate U.S. Government Flight Information Publications.

Straight-in IAPs are identified by the navigational system providing the final approach guidance and the

runway to which the approach is aligned (e.g., VOR RWY 13). Circling only approaches are identified by the

navigational system providing final approach guidance and a letter (e.g., VOR A). More than one navigational

system separated by a slash indicates more than one type of equipment must be used to execute the final

approach (e.g., VOR/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) RWY 31). More than one navigational system

separated by the word “or” indicates either type of equipment may be used to execute the final approach (e.g.,

VOR or GPS RWY 15). In some cases, other types of navigation systems may be required to execute other

portions of the approach (e.g., an NDB procedure turn to an ILS or an NDB in the missed approach). Pilots

should ensure the aircraft is equipped with the required NAVAID(s) in order to execute the approach, including

the missed approach. The FAA will initiate a program to provide a new notation for Localizer (LOC)

approaches when charted on an ILS approach requiring other navigational aids to fly the final approach course.

The LOC minimums will be annotated with the NAVAID required (e.g., “DME Required” or “RADAR

Required”). During the transition period, ILS approaches will still exist without the annotation. The naming

of multiple approaches of the same type to the same runway is also changing. New approaches with the same

guidance will be annotated with an alphabetical suffix beginning at the end of the alphabet and working

backward for subsequent procedures (ILS Z RWY 28, ILS Y RWY 28, etc.). The existing annotations such as

ILS 2 RWY 28 or Silver ILS RWY 28 will be phased out and eventually replaced with the new designation.

Category II and III ILS procedures are not subject to this naming convention. Wide Area Augmentation System

(WAAS), Lateral Navigation/Vertical Navigation (LNAV/VNAV), and Global Positioning System (GPS)

approach procedures will be charted as RNAV RWY (Number) (e.g., RNAV RWY 21). VOR/DME Area

Navigation (RNAV) approaches will continue to be identified as VOR/DME RNAV RWY (Number) (e.g.,

VOR/DME RNAV RWY 21).

Approach minimums are based on the local altimeter setting for that airport, unless annotated otherwise (e.g.,

Oklahoma City/Will Rogers World approaches are based on having a Will Rogers World altimeter setting).

When a different altimeter source is required, or more than one source is authorized, it will be annotated on

the approach chart (e.g., use Sidney altimeter setting; if not received, use Scottsbluff altimeter setting).

Approach minimums may be raised when a nonlocal altimeter source is authorized. When more than one

altimeter source is authorized, and the minimums are different, they will be shown by separate lines in the

approach minimums box or a note (e.g., use Manhattan altimeter setting; when not available, use Salina

altimeter setting and increase all Minimum Descent Altitudes [MDAs] 40 feet). When the altimeter must be

obtained from a source other than air traffic, a note will indicate the source (e.g., obtain local altimeter setting

on Common Traffic Advisory Frequency [CTAF]). When the altimeter setting(s) on which the approach is

based is not available, the approach is not authorized.

ORIGINAL

30-4

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

5. A pilot adhering to the altitudes, flightpaths, and weather minimums depicted on the IAP chart or vectors and

altitudes issued by the radar controller is assured of terrain and obstruction clearance and runway or airport

alignment during approach for landing.

6. IAPs are designed to provide an IFR descent from the en route environment to a point where a safe landing

can be made. They are prescribed and approved by appropriate civil or military authority to ensure a safe

descent during instrument flight conditions at a specific airport. It is important that pilots understand these

procedures and their use prior to attempting to fly instrument approaches.

7. TERPS criteria for the following type of instrument approach procedures:

a. Precision approaches where an electronic glideslope is provided (PAR, ILS, Tactical Landing System

[TLS], and MLS).

b. Precision approaches when vertical guidance is provided (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance

[LPV], GNSS Landing System [GLS], and Special Category 1 Differential GPS [SCAT-1]).

c. Nonprecision approaches when vertical guidance is provided (LNAV/VNAV).

d. Nonprecision approaches when no vertical guidance or glidepath is provided (all except for those listed in

subparagraphs a to c above).

The method used to depict prescribed altitudes on instrument approach charts differs according to techniques

employed by different chart publishers. Prescribed altitudes may be depicted in three different configurations:

minimum, maximum, and mandatory. The U.S. Government distributes charts produced by National

Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA) and FAA. Altitudes are depicted on these charts in the profile view with

underscore, overscore, or both to identify them as minimum, maximum, or mandatory.

1. Minimum altitude will be depicted with the altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to maintain

altitude at or above the depicted value.

2. Maximum altitude will be depicted with the altitude value overscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude

at or below the depicted value.

3. Mandatory altitude will be depicted with the altitude value both underscored and overscored. Aircraft are

required to maintain altitude at the depicted value.

Note

The underscore and overscore to identify mandatory altitudes and the

overscore to identify maximum altitudes are used almost exclusively by

NGA for military charts. With very few exceptions, civil approach charts

produced by FAA utilize only the underscore to identify minimum

altitudes. Pilots are cautioned to adhere to altitudes as prescribed because,

in certain instances, they may be used as the basis for vertical separation of

aircraft by ATC. When a depicted altitude is specified in the ATC clearance,

that altitude becomes mandatory as defined above.

30.5.1 Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA)

Minimum Safe Altitudes (MSAs) are published for emergency use on IAP charts. For conventional navigation

systems, the MSA is normally based on the primary omnidirectional facility on which the IAP is predicated. The MSA

depiction on the approach chart contains the facility identifier of the NAVAID used to determine the MSA altitudes.

For RNAV approaches, the MSA is based on the runway waypoint for straight-in approaches, or the airport waypoint

30-5

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

for circling approaches. For GPS approaches, the MSA center will be the Missed Approach Waypoint (MAWP).

MSAs are expressed in feet above mean sea level and normally have a 25-nm radius; however, this radius may be

expanded to 30 nm if necessary to encompass the airport landing surfaces. Ideally, a single sector altitude is

established and depicted on the plan view of approach charts; however, when necessary to obtain relief from

obstructions, the area may be further sectored and as many as four MSAs established. When established, sectors may

be no less than 90° in spread. MSAs provide 1,000 foot clearance over all obstructions but do not necessarily ensure

acceptable navigation signal coverage.

30.5.2 Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)

The objective of the Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) is to provide a seamless transition from the en route structure

to the terminal environment for arriving aircraft equipped with an FMS and/or GPS navigational equipment.

The underlying instrument approach procedure is an Area Navigation (RNAV) procedure described in

paragraph 30.5.8. The TAA provides the pilot and air traffic controller with a very efficient method for routing

traffic into the terminal environment with little required air traffic control interface and with minimum altitudes

depicted that provide standard obstacle clearance compatible with the instrument procedure associated with

it. The TAA will not be found on all RNAV procedures, particularly in areas of heavy concentration of air

traffic. When the TAA is published, it replaces the MSA for that approach procedure.

The RNAV procedure underlying the TAA will be the “T” design (also called the “Basic T”), or a modification

of the “T.” The “T” design incorporates from one to three Initial Approach Fixes (IAFs): an Intermediate Fix

(IF) that serves as a dual purpose IF (IAF), a Final Approach Fix (FAF), and a Missed Approach Point (MAP)

usually located at the runway threshold. The three IAFs are normally aligned in a straight line perpendicular

to the intermediate course, which is an extension of the final course leading to the runway, forming a “T.” The

initial segment is normally from 3 to 6 nm in length, the intermediate 5 to 7 nm, and the final segment 5 nm.

Specific segment length may be varied to accommodate specific aircraft categories for which the procedure

is designed; however, the published segment lengths will reflect the highest category of aircraft normally

expected to use the procedure.

a. A standard racetrack holding pattern may be provided at the center IAF and, if present, may be necessary

for course reversal and for altitude adjustment for entry into the procedure. In the latter case, the pattern

provides an extended distance for the descent required by the procedure. Depiction of this pattern in U.S.

Government publications will utilize the “hold-in-lieu-of-PT” holding pattern symbol.

b. The published procedure will be annotated to indicate when the course reversal is not necessary when flying

within a particular TAA area (e.g., “NoPT”); otherwise, the pilot is expected to execute the course reversal

under the provisions of 14 CFR Section 91.175. The pilot may elect to use the course reversal pattern when

it is not required by the procedure, but must inform air traffic control and receive clearance to do so

(Figures 30-1 and 30-2).

The “T” design may be modified by the procedure designers where required by terrain or ATC considerations.

For instance, the “T” design may appear more like a regularly or irregularly shaped “Y,” or may even have one

or both outboard IAFs eliminated, resulting in an upside-down “L” or an “I” configuration (Figures 30-3 and

30-4). Further, the leg lengths associated with the outboard IAFs may differ (Figures 30-5 and 30-6).

Another modification of the “T” design may be found at airports with parallel runway configurations. Each

parallel runway may be served by its own “T” IAF, IF (IAF), and FAF combination, resulting in parallel final

approach courses (Figure 30-4). Common IAFs may serve both runways; however, only the intermediate and

final approach segments for the landing runway will be shown on the approach chart (Figures 30-5 and 30-6).

ORIGINAL

30-6

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

The standard TAA consists of three areas defined by the extension of the IAF legs and the intermediate segment

course. These areas are called the straight-in, left-base, and right-base areas (Figure 30-7). TAA area lateral

boundaries are identified by magnetic courses to the IF (IAF). The straight-in area can be further divided into

pie-shaped sectors with the boundaries identified by magnetic courses to the IF (IAF) and may contain

stepdown sections defined by arcs based on RNAV distances (DME or Along Track Distance [ATD]) from the

IF (IAF). The right/left-base areas can only be subdivided using arcs based on RNAV distances from the IAF

for those areas. Minimum Mean Sea Level (MSL) altitudes are charted within each of these defined

areas/subdivisions that provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance or more, as necessary, in mountainous

areas.

a. Prior to arriving at the TAA boundary, the pilot can determine which area of the TAA the aircraft will enter

by selecting the IF (IAF) to determine the magnetic bearing to the IF (IAF). That bearing should then be

compared with the published bearings that define the lateral boundaries of the TAA areas. This is critical

when approaching the TAA near the extended boundary between the left- and right-base areas, especially

where these areas contain different minimum altitude requirements.

b. Pilots entering the TAA and cleared by air traffic control are expected to proceed directly to the IAF

associated with that area of the TAA at the altitude depicted, unless otherwise cleared by air traffic control.

Pilots entering the TAA with two-way radio communications failure (14 CFR Section 91.185, IFR

Operations: Two-Way Radio Communications Failure), must maintain the highest altitude prescribed by

Section 91.185(c)(2) until arriving at the appropriate IAF.

c. Depiction of the TAA on U.S. Government charts will be through the use of icons located in the plan view

outside the depiction of the actual approach procedure (Figure 30-8). Use of icons is necessary to avoid

obscuring any portion of the “T” procedure (altitudes, courses, minimum altitudes, etc.). The icon for each

TAA area will be located and oriented on the plan view with respect to the direction of arrival to the approach

procedure and will show all TAA minimum altitudes and sector/radius subdivisions for that area. The IAF

for each area of the TAA is included on the icon where it appears on the approach to help the pilot orient

the icon to the approach procedure. The IAF name and the distance of the TAA area boundary from the IAF

are included on the outside arc of the TAA area icon. Examples here are shown with the TAA around the

approach to aid pilots in visualizing how the TAA corresponds to the approach and should not be confused

with the actual approach chart depiction.

d. Each waypoint on the “T,” except the missed approach waypoint, is assigned a pronounceable five-character

name used in air traffic control communications, that is found in the RNAV databases for the procedure.

The missed approach waypoint is assigned a pronounceable name when it is not located at the runway

threshold.

Once cleared to fly the TAA, pilots are expected to obey minimum altitudes depicted within the TAA icons,

unless instructed otherwise by air traffic control. In Figure 30-9, pilots within the left-base area are expected

to maintain a minimum altitude of 10,000 feet once within 30 nm and a minimum altitude of 9,600 feet once

within 30 nm in the right-base area. Pilots approaching from the northeast are expected to maintain a minimum

altitude of 11,400 feet once within 30 nm, and when within 12 nm of the IF (IAF), descend to a minimum

altitude of 9,100 feet MSL until reaching the IF (IAF).

ORIGINAL

30-12

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

7. Just as the underlying “T” approach procedure may be modified in shape, the TAA may contain modifications

to the defined area shapes and sizes. Some areas may even be eliminated, with other areas expanded as needed.

Figure 30-10 is an example of a design limitation where a course reversal is necessary when approaching the

IF (IAF) from certain directions due to the amount of turn required at the IF (IAF). Design criteria require a

course reversal whenever this turn exceeds 120 degrees. In this generalized example, pilots approaching on

a bearing to the IF (IAF) from 300° clockwise through 060° are expected to execute a course reversal. The term

NoPT will be annotated on the boundary of the TAA icon for the other portion of the TAA.

8. Figure 30-11 depicts another TAA modification that pilots may encounter. In this generalized example, the

right-base area has been eliminated. Pilots operating within the TAA between 360° clockwise to 060° bearing

to the IF (IAF) are expected to execute the course reversal in order to properly align the aircraft for entry onto

the intermediate segment. Aircraft operating in all other areas from 060° clockwise to 360° bearing to the IF

(IAF) need not perform the course reversal, and the term “NoPT” will be annotated on the TAA boundary of

the icon in these areas.

9. When an airway does not cross the lateral TAA boundaries, a feeder route will be established to provide a

transition from the en route structure to the appropriate IAF. Each feeder route will terminate at the TAA

boundary and will be aligned along a path pointing to the associated IAF. Pilots should descend to the TAA

altitude after crossing the TAA boundary and cleared by air traffic control (Figure 30-12).

30.5.3 Minimum Vectoring Altitude (MVA)

The Minimum Vectoring Altitude (MVA) is established for use by ATC when radar ATC is exercised. MVA charts

are prepared by air traffic facilities at locations where there are numerous different minimum IFR altitudes. Each

MVA chart has sectors large enough to accommodate vectoring of aircraft within the sector at the MVA. Each sector

boundary within 40 miles of the radar is at least 3 miles from the obstruction determining the MVA. Each sector

boundary 40 miles or more from the radar is at least 5 miles from the obstruction determining the MVA. To avoid a

large sector with an excessively high MVA due to an isolated prominent obstruction, the obstruction may be enclosed

in a buffer area. This is done to facilitate vectoring around the obstruction (Figure 30-13).

1. The minimum vectoring altitude in each sector provides

1,000 feet above the highest obstacle in

nonmountainous areas and 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle in designated mountainous areas. Where

lower MVA are required in designated mountainous areas to achieve compatibility with terminal routes or to

permit vectoring to an IAP, 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance may be authorized with the use of Airport

Surveillance Radar (ASR). The minimum vectoring altitude will provide at least 300 feet above the floor of

controlled airspace.

Note

The Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude (OROCA) is an off-route

altitude that provides obstruction clearance with a 1,000-foot buffer in

nonmountainous terrain areas and a

2,000-foot buffer in designated

mountainous areas within the U.S. This altitude may not provide signal

coverage from ground-based navigational aids, air traffic control radar, or

communications coverage.

2. Because of differences in the areas considered for MVA, those applied to other minimum altitudes, and the

ability to isolate specific obstacles, some MVA may be lower than the nonradar MEAs, Minimum Obstruction

Clearance Altitudes (MOCAs)or other minimum altitudes depicted on charts for a given location. While being

radar vectored, IFR altitude assignments by ATC will be at or above MVA.

ORIGINAL

30-16

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

30.5.4 Visual Descent Point (VDP)

VDPs are being incorporated in selected nonprecision approach procedures. The VDP is a defined point on the final

approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach procedure from which normal descent from the MDA to the

runway touchdown point may be commenced, provided visual reference required by 14 CFR Section 91.175(c)(3)

is established. The VDP will normally be identified by DME on VOR and LOC procedures and by a long track

distance to the next waypoint for RNAV procedures. The VDP is identified on the profile view of the approach chart

by the symbol V.

1. VDPs are intended to provide additional guidance where they are implemented. No special technique is

required to fly a procedure with a VDP. The pilot should not descend below the MDA prior to reaching the VDP

and acquiring the necessary visual reference.

2. Pilots not equipped to receive the VDP should fly the approach procedure as though no VDP had been

provided.

30.5.5 Visual Portion of the Final Segment

Instrument procedures designers perform a visual area obstruction evaluation off the approach end of each runway

authorized for instrument landing, straight-in, or circling. Restrictions to instrument operations are imposed if

penetrations of the obstruction clearance surfaces exist. These restrictions vary based on the severity of the

penetrations and may include increasing required visibility, denying VDPs, and prohibiting night instrument

operations to the runway.

30.5.6 Vertical Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonprecision Approaches

Descent angles are currently being published on selected nonprecision approaches. The FAA intends to eventually

publish Vertical Descent Angles (VDAs) on all nonprecision approaches. Published along with the VDA is the

Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) (i.e., the height of the descent angle above the landing threshold). The descent

angle describes a computed path from the FAF and altitude to the runway threshold at the published TCH. The

optimum descent angle is 3.00 degrees; whenever possible, the approach will be designed to accommodate this angle.

1. The VDA provides the pilot with information not previously available on nonprecision approaches. It provides

the means for the pilot to establish a stabilized approach descent from the FAF or stepdown fix to the TCH.

Stabilized descent along this path is a key factor in the reduction of Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)

incidents. Pilots can use the published angle and estimated/actual groundspeed to find a target rate of descent

from a rate of descent table published with the instrument approach procedures.

2. Normally, the VDA will first appear on the nonprecision approach chart as the procedure is amended through

the normal process; however, in some cases, pilots can expect to see this data provided via a NOTAM(D).

3. Pilots should be aware that the published angle is for information only — it is strictly advisory in nature. There

is no implicit additional obstacle protection below the MDA. Pilots must still respect the published MDA

unless the visual cues stated in 14 CFR Section 91.175 are present. In rare cases, the published procedure

descent angle will not coincide with the Visual Glideslope Indicator (VGSI), Visual Approach Slope Indicator

(VASI) or Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI). In these cases, the procedure will be annotated: “VGSI

and descent angle not coincident.”

30.5.7 Pilot Operational Considerations When Flying Nonprecision Approaches

The MAP on a nonprecision approach is not designed with any consideration to where the aircraft must begin descent

to execute a safe landing. It is developed based on terrain, obstructions, NAVAID location, and possibly air traffic

considerations. Because the MAP may be located anywhere from well prior to the runway threshold to past the

30-21

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

opposite end of the runway, the descent from the MDA to the runway threshold cannot be determined based on the

MAP location. Descent from MDA at the MAP when the MAP is located close to the threshold would require an

excessively steep descent gradient to land in the normal touchdown zone. Any turn from the final approach course

to the runway heading may also be a factor in when to begin the descent.

1. Pilots are cautioned that descent to a straight-in landing from the MDA at the MAP may be inadvisable or

impossible, on a nonprecision approach, even if current weather conditions meet the published ceiling and

visibility. Aircraft speed, height above the runway, descent rate, amount of turn, and runway length are some

of the factors that must be considered by the pilot to determine if a landing can be accomplished.

2. Visual Descent Points (VDPs) provide pilots with a reference for the optimal location to begin descent from

the MDA, based on the designed VDA for the approach procedure, assuming required visual references are

available. Approaches without VDPs have not been assessed for terrain clearance below the MDA and may

not provide a clear vertical path to the runway at the normally expected descent angle; therefore, pilots must

be especially vigilant when descending below the MDA at locations without VDPs. This does not necessarily

prevent flying the normal angle; it only means that obstacle clearance in the visual segment could be less and

greater care should be exercised in looking for obstacles in the visual segment. Use of VGSI systems can aid

the pilot in determining if the aircraft is in a position to make the descent from the MDA; however, when the

visibility is close to minimums, the VGSI may not be visible at the start descent point for a normal glidepath

due to its location down the runway.

3. Accordingly, pilots are advised to carefully review approach procedures, prior to initiating the approach, to

identify the optimum position(s), and any unacceptable positions, from which a descent to landing can be

initiated (in accordance with 14 CFR Section 91.175(c)).

30.5.8 Area Navigation (RNAV) Instrument Approach Charts

Reliance on RNAV systems for instrument approach operations is becoming more commonplace as new systems such

as GPS, Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), and Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) are developed

and deployed. In order to foster and support full integration of RNAV into the National Airspace System (NAS), the

FAA has developed a new charting format for RNAV IAPs (Figure 30-8). This format avoids unnecessary duplication

and proliferation of instrument approach charts. The approach minimums for unaugmented GPS (the present GPS

approaches) and augmented GPS (WAAS and LAAS when they become operational) will be published on the same

approach chart. The approach chart will be titled RNAV (GPS) RWY XX. The first RNAV approach charts may

appear as stand-alone “GPS” procedures, prior to WAAS becoming operational. Accordingly, the minimums line

associated with WAAS may be marked NA until the navigation system is operational. The chart may contain as many

as four lines of approach minimums: Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Landing System (GLS), LPV,

Lateral Navigation/Vertical Navigation (LNAV/VNAV), LNAV, and CIRCLING. GLS includes WAAS and LAAS.

LNAV/VNAV is a new type of instrument approach with lateral and vertical navigation. During a transition period

when GPS procedures are undergoing revision, the new title RNAV (GPS) approach charts and formats will be

published. ATC clearance for the RNAV procedure will authorize a properly certified pilot to utilize any landing

minimums for which the aircraft is certified. The RNAV (GPS) chart will include formatted information required for

quick pilot or flightcrew reference located at the top of the chart. This portion of the chart, developed based on a study

by the Department of Transportation, Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, is commonly referred to as the

pilot briefing, or EZ Brief.

1. New minimums lines will be:

a. GLS. “GLS” is the acronym for GNSS Landing System; GNSS is the acronym for Global Navigation

Satellite System. The minimums line labeled GLS will accommodate aircraft equipped with precision

approach capable WAAS receivers operating to their fullest capability. WAAS, as its name implies,

augments the basic GPS satellite constellation with additional ground stations and enhanced

position/integrity information transmitted from geostationary satellites. This capability of augmentation

ORIGINAL

30-22

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

enhances both the accuracy and integrity of basic GPS and may support precision (GLS) approach

minimums as low as 200-foot Height Above Touchdown (HAT) and 1/2 statute mile (SM) visibility.

Publication of the lowest GLS minimums requires that certain interrelated conditions of satellite availability

and runway landing environment are met. The suitability of the landing environment to support the lowest

landing minimums is determined by the degree of airport compliance with AC 150/5300-13, Airport

Design. Precision runway and airport compliance factors include runway marking and lighting, obstacle

clearance surfaces, runway length, approach lighting, taxiway layout, etc. Pilots will be informed that all

the requirements of the precision runway landing environment are satisfied by the notation GLS PA (GNSS

Landing System Precision Approach) on the first line of minimums in U.S. Government Terminal

Procedure Publication charts. Pilots will be informed that not all of the precision runway requirements are

met by the notation GLS without the letters “PA” on the first line of minimums. In this latter case, the

airborne WAAS receiver may be operating in the most capable mode, but because the landing environment

does not support the low-visibility operations, minimums no lower than 300-foot HAT and 3/4 SM visibility

will be published. Since computed glidepath guidance is provided to the pilot, procedure minimum altitude

will be published as a Decision Altitude (DA).

b. LNAV/VNAV identifies minimums developed to accommodate an RNAV IAP with vertical guidance, but

with integrity limits larger than a precision approach. LNAV stands for Lateral Navigation; VNAV stands

for Vertical Navigation. Aircraft using LNAV/VNAV minimums will descend to landing via an internally

generated descent path based on satellite or other approach approved VNAV systems. WAAS equipment

may revert to this mode of operation when the signal does not support the highest level of accuracy and

integrity. Since electronic vertical guidance is provided, the minimums will be published as a DA. Other

navigation systems may be specifically authorized to use this line of minimums; see Section A,

Terms/Landing Minimums Data, of the U.S. Terminal Procedures books for a more detailed explanation.

c. LNAV. This minimum is for lateral navigation only, and the approach minimum altitude will be published

as an MDA because vertical guidance is not provided. LNAV provides the same level of service as the

present GPS stand-alone approaches. LNAV minimums support the following navigation systems: WAAS

(when the navigation solution will not support vertical navigation) and GPS navigation systems which are

presently authorized to conduct GPS approaches. The LNAV line on the RNAV chart will allow the present

approach certified receivers to fly the new approaches. Existing GPS approaches will be converted to this

format. (The receiver must be approved for approach operations in accordance with: AC 20-138,

Airworthiness Approval of Global Positioning System [GPS] Navigation Equipment for Use as a Visual

Flight Rules [VFR] and IFR Supplemental Navigation System, for stand-alone TSO-C128 Class A(1)

systems; or AC 20-130A, Airworthiness Approval of Navigation or Flight Management Systems

Integrating Multiple Navigation Sensors, for GPS as part of a multisensor system, qualify for this

minimum.)

Other systems may be authorized to utilize these approaches. See the description in Section A of the U.S.

Terminal Procedures books for details. Through a special authorization, aircraft equipped with other IFR

approach approved RNAV systems may fly to the LNAV/VNAV and/or LNAV minimums described above.

These systems may include aircraft equipped with an FMS that can file /E or /F. Operational approval must

also be obtained for Barometric Vertical Navigation (BARO-VNAV) systems to operate to the LNAV/VNAV

minimums. BARO-VNAV may not be authorized on some approaches due to other factors. Pilots are directed

to their local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) for additional information.

Note

RNAV and BARO-VNAV systems must have a manufacturer-supplied

electronic database that shall include the waypoints, altitudes, and vertical

data for the procedure to be flown. The system shall also be able to extract

the procedure in its entirety, not just as a series of waypoints.

30-23

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

Required Navigation Performance (RNP).

a. With the widespread deployment of RNAV systems, the advent of GPS, and the imminent implementation

of WAAS, greater flexibility in route, procedure, and airspace design is now possible, with an associated

increase in navigation accuracy and flight safety. To capitalize on the potential of RNAV systems, the FAA

and the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) are effecting a shift toward a new standard of

navigation and airspace management called RNP.

b. Navigation systems have typically been described as being sensor specific, such as VOR, NDB, and ILS

systems. When RNP is specified, it does not matter what the underlying navigation system or combination

of systems is used, provided the aircraft can achieve the required navigation performance. Typically, various

sensor inputs are processed by the RNAV system to arrive at a position estimate having a high statistical

degree of accuracy and confidence. RNP is intended to provide a single performance standard that can be

used and applied to aircraft and aircraft equipment manufacturers, airspace, planners, aircraft certification

and operations, pilots and controllers, and international aviation authorities. RNP can be related to obstacle

clearance or aircraft separation requirements to ensure a consistent level of application.

c. An RNP level or type is applicable to a selected airspace, route, or procedure. The applicable RNP is

expressed as a value that represents a distance in nautical miles from the intended position to the actual

position of an aircraft. It is within this distance that an aircraft would normally be expected to operate. For

general RNAV approach procedures, RNP 0.3 is required.

d. Pilots are advised to refer to the “TERPS/LANDING MINIMUMS DATA” (Section A) of the U.S.

Government Terminal Procedures books for aircraft approach eligibility requirements by specific RNP

level requirements. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria will have an appropriate entry, including special

conditions and limitations, if any, in the Aircraft Flight Manual (AFM) or its supplement. This will only

occur when it has been determined that the aircraft complies with the appropriate provisions of certification.

e. Some aircraft have RNP approval in their AFM without a GPS sensor. The lowest level of sensors that the

FAA will support for RNP service is DME/DME; however, necessary DME NAVAID ground infrastructure

may or may not be available at the airport of intended operations. For those locations having an RNAV chart

published with LNAV/VNAV minimums, a procedure note may be provided (e.g., DME/DME RNP 0.3

NA; this means that RNP aircraft dependent on DME/DME to achieve RNP 0.3 are not authorized to

conduct this approach). Where FAA flight inspection successfully determines the availability and geometry

of DME facilities will support RNP 0.3 and the DME signal meets inspection tolerances, a note such as

“DME/DME RNP 0.3 Authorized” will appear on the chart. Where DME facility availability is a factor,

the note may read “DME/DME RNP 0.3 Authorized; ABC and XYZ Required,” meaning that ABC and

XYZ facilities have been determined by flight inspection to be required in the navigation solution to ensure

RNP 0.3.

Chart terminology will change slightly to support the new procedure types.

a. Decision Altitude (DA) replaces the familiar term Decision Height (DH). DA conforms to the international

convention where altitudes relate to MSL and heights relate to Above Ground Level (AGL). DA will

eventually be published for other types of instrument approach procedures with vertical guidance as well.

DA indicates to the pilot that the published descent profile is flown to the DA (MSL), where a missed

approach will be initiated if visual references for landing are not established. Obstacle clearance is provided

to allow a momentary descent below DA while transitioning from the final approach to the missed approach.

The aircraft is expected to follow the missed instructions while continuing along the published final

approach course to at least the published runway threshold waypoint or MAP (if not at the threshold) before

executing any turns.

b. Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) has been in use for many years and will continue to be used for the

LNAV only and circling procedures.

ORIGINAL

30-24

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

c. Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) has been traditionally used in precision approaches as the height of the

glideslope above threshold. With publication of LNAV/VNAV minimums and RNAV descent angles,

including graphically depicted descent profiles, TCH also applies to the height of the descent angle, or

glidepath, at the threshold. Unless otherwise required for larger type aircraft that may be using the IAP, the

typical TCH is 30 to 50 feet.

The minimums format will also change slightly.

a. Each line of minimums on the RNAV IAP will be titled to reflect the RNAV system applicable (e.g., GLS,

LNAV/VNAV, and LNAV). Circling minimums will also be provided.

b. The minimums title box will also indicate the nature of the minimum altitude for the IAP. For example:

(1) DA will be published next to the minimums line title for minimums supporting vertical guidance such

as for GLS or LNAV/VNAV.

(2) MDA will be published where the minimums line supports only lateral guidance. Descent below the

MDA, including during the missed approach, is not authorized unless the visual conditions stated in

14 CFR Section 91.175 exist.

(3) Where two or more systems, such as GLS and LNAV/VNAV, share the same minimums, each line of

minimums will be displayed separately.

Chart symbology will change slightly to include:

a. Descent Profile. The published descent profile and a graphical depiction of the vertical path to the runway

will be shown. Graphical depiction of the RNAV vertical guidance will differ from the traditional depiction

of an ILS glideslope (feather) through the use of a simple vertical track (no feather).

(1) It is FAA policy to design IAPs with minimum altitudes established at fixes/waypoints to achieve

optimum stabilized (constant rate) descents within each procedure segment. This design can enhance

the safety of the operations and contribute toward reduction in the occurrence of Controlled Flight Into

Terrain (CFIT) accidents. Additionally, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recently

emphasized that pilots could benefit from publication of the appropriate IAP descent angle for a

stabilized descent on final approach; therefore, the new RNAV IAP format will include the descent

angle to the hundredth of a degree (e.g., 3.00 degrees). The angle will be provided in the graphically

depicted descent profile.

(2) The stabilized approach may be performed by reference to vertical navigation information provided by

WAAS or LNAV/VNAV systems, or for LNAV-only systems, by the pilot determining the appropriate

aircraft attitude/groundspeed combination to attain a constant rate descent that best emulates the

published angle. To aid the pilot, U.S. Government Terminal Procedures Publication charts publish an

expanded Rate of Descent Table on the inside of the back hard cover for use in planning and executing

precision descents under known or approximate groundspeed conditions.

b. Visual Descent Point (VDP). VDPs are published on most RNAV (GPS) IAPs. VDPs apply only to aircraft

utilizing LNAV minimums, not GLS or LNAV/VNAV minimums.

c. Missed Approach Symbology. In order to make missed approach guidance more readily understood, a

method has been developed to display missed approach guidance in the profile view through the use of quick

reference icons. Due to limited space in the profile area, only four or fewer icons can be shown; however,

the icon may not provide representation of the entire missed approach procedure. The entire set of textual

missed approach instructions is provided at the top of the approach chart in the pilot briefing (Figure 30-8).

30-25

ORIGINAL

NAVAIR 00-80T-112

d. Waypoints. All RNAV or GPS stand-alone IAPs are flown using data pertaining to the particular IAP

obtained from an onboard database, including the sequence of all WPs used for the approach and missed

approach. Included in the database, in most receivers, is coding that informs the navigation system of which

Waypoints (WPs) are fly-over or fly-by. The navigation system may provide guidance appropriately,

including leading the turn prior to a Fly-By Waypoint (FBWP), or causing overflight of a Fly-Over

Waypoint (FOWP). Where the navigation system does not provide such guidance, the pilot must accomplish

the turn lead or waypoint overflight manually. Chart symbology for the FBWP provides pilot awareness of

expected actions. Refer to the legend of the U.S. Terminal Procedures books.

e. TAAs are described in paragraph 30.5.2. When published, the new RNAV chart will depict the TAA areas

through the use of icons representing each TAA area associated with the RNAV procedure. These icons will

be depicted in the plan view of the approach chart, generally arranged on the chart in accordance with their

position relative to the aircraft arrival from the en route structure. The WP, to which navigation is

appropriate and expected within each specific TAA area, will be named and depicted on the associated TAA

icon. Each depicted named WP is the IAF for arrivals from within that area. TAAs may not be depicted on

all RNAV procedures because of the inability for ATC to accommodate the TAA due to airspace congestion.

Cold Temperature Limitations. A minimum temperature limitation will be published for each procedure for

which BARO-VNAV operations are authorized. This temperature represents the airport temperature below

which use of the BARO-VNAV will not be authorized to the LNAV/VNAV minimums. An example

limitation will read: “BARO-VNAV NA below -20 °C (-4 °F).” This information will be found in the upper

left-hand box of the pilot briefing.

g. WAAS Channel Number/Approach ID. The WAAS Channel Number is an equipment optional capability

that allows the use of a five-digit number to select a specific instrument approach procedure. The Approach

ID is a unique four-letter combination for verifying selection of the correct procedure. The WAAS Channel

Number and Approach ID will be displayed prominently in the approach procedure pilot briefing. The

WAAS Channel Number and Approach ID provide one method available to the pilot for selecting and

verifying the approach procedure for the runway of intended landing from the onboard databases. Some

equipment may utilize a menu selection method.

(1) The Menu Method. In general, although the steps may vary among equipment types, the pilot first

selects the airport of intended landing using the airborne equipment control panel. From a menu that

is presented for this airport, the pilot then selects the approach runway. Selecting, from the menu, the

Approach ID that matches the Approach ID printed on the approach chart then makes selection of the

specific approach procedure. Finally, the pilot activates the procedure by selecting the IAF with which

to begin the approach.

(2) Five-Digit Channel Number Method. The pilot enters the unique five-digit number provided for the

approach chart, and the receiver recalls a specific approach procedure from the aircraft database. A list

of information including the Approach ID and available IAFs is displayed. The pilot confirms the

correct procedure is selected by comparing the Approach ID listed with that printed on the approach

chart. Finally, the pilot activates the procedure by selecting the appropriate IAF with which to begin the

approach.

30.6

APPROACH CLEARANCE

An aircraft that has been cleared to a holding fix and subsequently “cleared . . . approach” has not received new

routing. Even though clearance for the approach may have been issued prior to the aircraft reaching the holding fix,

ATC would expect the pilot to proceed via the holding fix (the last assigned route) and the feeder route associated

with that fix (if a feeder route is published on the approach chart) to the IAF to commence the approach.

ORIGINAL

30-26

NAVAIR 00-80T-112 NATOPS INSTRUMENT FLIGHT MANUAL (15 NOVEMBER 2006) - page 4