FM 3-55.93 Long-Range Surveillance Unit Operations (MAY 2008) - page 5

 

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FM 3-55.93 Long-Range Surveillance Unit Operations (MAY 2008) - page 5

 

 

Chapter 5
PERSONNEL DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
5-40.
SPIES training and operations require the designation of key personnel to perform assigned tasks.
The positions are unit commander, SPIES master, ground safety officer (GSO) or NCO, air mission
commander, and pilot in command.
QUALIFICATIONS OF SPIES MASTER
5-41.
Selection of personnel for qualification as SPIES master should be based on the individual's
demonstrated leadership capabilities, maturity, and knowledge of SPIES operations. Individuals selected
must participate in at least three SPIES operations (observe twice and execute SPIES master duties once
under the supervision by a qualified SPIES master). For example, the SPIES master candidate configures
the hookups in the helicopter, helps prepare for an operation, and conducts a successful operation under the
supervision of a qualified SPIES master. He must be able to give an effective pilot's brief, use the aircraft
communication equipment, and understand aviation terminology. Additional qualifications
requirements include--
• Holds the rank of sergeant or above (waivable).
• Completed initial SPIES training.
• Knows all aspects of a SPIES operation.
• Has received instructions on and demonstrated proficiency in:
— Rigging of the helicopter.
— Inspection and preparation of SPIES.
— Donning of the SPIES harness.
— Coordination responsibilities.
— Soldier or aircrew briefings.
— Organization of the personnel to be extracted.
— Instruction to pilots in maintaining the aircraft position over the target.
— Throwing and retrieving SPIES.
— Hand-and-arm signals.
— Emergency procedures.
GENERAL DUTIES OF THE SPIES MASTER
5-42.
The SPIES master is responsible for the safe conduct of the SPIES operation. Preflight, he—
Equipment
5-43.
Inventories and inspects all SPIES equipment.
Briefs
5-44.
Briefs pilots and others concerned about the details of the operation, concentrating on extraction
and dismounting procedures.
Inter-Cockpit Communications System Helmet
5-45.
Ensures that he has an inter-cockpit communications helmet and a gunner's belt or, lacking a belt,
a sling rope instead. He connects, then checks the operation of the inter-cockpit communication system. On
all SPIES operations, he, the crew chiefs, and the pilots must establish interagency communications using
this system.
5-14
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
Rope
5-46.
Attaches the SPIES rope to the helicopter as previously described.
Loose Items
5-47.
Checks for loose items that could fall on a team member during flight.
Axe
5-48.
Ensures that the axe is available, sharp, and securely stored so that it presents no danger to the
Soldiers on the SPIES rope. He also ensures that he has an alternate means of cutting the rope in case of
emergency.
DUTIES OF THE SPIES MASTER DURING EXTRACTION
5-49.
On arrival at the team's estimated position, the SPIES master helps the pilot determine the exact
locations of the team members, and—
1.
As the aircraft approaches the team's location, he helps the pilot (using the clock system)
position the aircraft directly above the team.
2.
He requests permission from the pilot to drop the SPIES rope when the aircraft is hovering
above the team.
3.
He drops the rope, taking care to avoid striking team members on the ground.
4.
He notifies the pilot when the rope is down, and reports any altitude corrections necessary to
ensure that the team members can reach all of the SPIES attachment points.
5.
He watches for the team leader to give the thumbs-up signal.
6.
When he sees it, he tells the pilot that the team is ready for extraction, and he requests a
vertical liftoff.
7.
He advises the pilot of the team's approximate position, the locations of any potential
obstacles, and the avoidance of horizontal movement.
8.
If a team member becomes entangled with an obstacle during the extraction, he notifies the
pilot to stop the vertical lift immediately. If the situation is critical, he prepares to cut the
SPIES rope (the anchor point or cargo straps) after team members are secured to the obstacle
or on the ground.
9.
When he is sure the team has cleared all obstructions, he advises the pilot. The pilot flies to a
safe altitude (about 350 feet above ground level for training purposes, or, in combat, however
high the situation dictates), or transitions to forward flight.
10. At frequent intervals during the flight, he advises the pilot on the safety status of all team
members. He constantly watches the team and checks the security of the SPIES attachments.
DUTIES OF THE SPIES MASTER DURING DISMOUNTING
5-50.
On arrival at the dismount area, the SPIES master tells the pilot the approximate height of the
lower roper from the ground and
1.
Once the pilot starts the vertical descent, the SPIES master continually informs the pilot of the
approximate distance between the lowest roper and the ground.
2.
He informs the pilot of any horizontal drift or oscillation in the rope, and of any obstructions.
3.
He tells the pilot when the rope is about 25 feet above the ground and again when it is 10 feet
above the ground.
4.
He ensures that the rate of descent is slow enough to enable the team members to land safely.
FM 3-55.93
5-15
Chapter 5
5.
He reports initial touchdown of the lowest roper, when the last team member lands safely, and
when all team members are disconnected.
6.
On order of the pilot, he either retrieves or disconnects and drops the SPIES rope. With the
UH-60/1H helicopter, he can only retrieve the rope if he has previously attached a recovery
rope (a 12-foot sling rope or two 6-foot sling ropes joined together) about 5 or 6 feet below
the cargo hook or cargo strap hookup point. The recovery rope must be attached using a
self-tightening knot such as the Prussik knot. The standing end of the sling rope may be
fastened to the deck tie-down or to a snaplink. Although the line should be kept out of the
way, it must be long enough to control any oscillation in the SPIES during flight.
INSPECTION
5-51.
A certified SPIES master or rigger inspects SPIES at a minimum every 6 months or whenever the
serviceability of the equipment is in doubt. Out-dated, spliced, abraded, or cut ropes are removed from
service. The SPIES master or rigger inspects the ropes as follows:
1.
Inspects harness and suspension sling webbing for signs of contamination from oil, grease,
acid, rust, cuts, twists, fading, excessive wear, or fusing (indicated by unusual hardening or
softening of webbing fibers), fraying, burns, abrasions, and loose or broken stitching (in
excess of three stitches). The inspector removes damaged harnesses or suspension slings and
returns damaged equipment to supply for appropriate disposition. In some cases, riggers may
be able to repair deficiencies.
2.
Inspects all hardware for signs of corrosion, pitting, ease of operation, security of attachment,
bends, dents, nicks, burrs, and sharp edges. Replacing any hardware (except the chest strap
adapter) that requires unstitching the webbing, makes the harness unserviceable.
3.
Replaces the "V" ring by cutting the strap above the stitching. A qualified rigger can fold and
stitch a new end section for leg straps. If straps are damaged, the harness or suspension sling
are unserviceable and must be returned to supply for appropriate disposition.
4.
Ensures rope is free of splices.
5.
Inspects the surface of the rope for splices, cuts, excessive abrasions, and snags. Cuts are
considered excessive when four or more strands in any 5-inch length are cut. The two-to-one
braided rope has 12 pair (24 strands) around the circumference. Abrasion is extensive when
torn yarns are equivalent to that of four strands of any 5-inch length. A rope that has been
subjected to heavy loads might display glazed areas where it has rubbed against hard surfaces.
Painted or fused fibers can both produce a glazed appearance. A rope can also get fuzzy on
the surface from long use. The effect on the strength of the rope by glazing or surface fuzz is
negligible.
6.
Inspects the rope for signs of contamination by acid, alkaline compounds, salt water, fire
extinguishing solutions, and petroleum based solvents. Although ropes gradually and
uniformly change color with use, this does not decrease its strength. However, exposure to
strong chemicals, usually indicated by spotty discoloration on the rope, can affect the strength
of the rope.
7.
Ensures the eye loop at the attachment point is not broken, frayed, or loose.
5-16
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
SERVICE LIFE
5-52.
The SPIES master and riggers check ropes, harnesses, and suspension slings for expiration of
service life or total life. Expiration of service is 7 years from the date the manufacturer's package is opened,
and total life is 15 years from the date of manufacture.
REPAIR AND CLEANING OF ROPE
5-53.
To repair the rope, the SPIES master must--
Note: You must repair loose or broken stitching.
1.
Wash contaminated ropes with a mild detergent (such as liquid dish soap) and cold water,
followed by a rinse in clean, fresh water. Dry the rope at room temperature (not to exceed
140 degrees Fahrenheit).
2.
Remove stubborn oil, grease, hydraulic fluid, and other petroleum stains with the cleaning
agent xylene (Grade A or B, TT-X 916). Use the cleaning agent as directed.
WARNING
AVOID TRYING TO REPAIR NONREPAIRABLE DAMAGE, TO
INCLUDE ACID CONTAMINATION, CUTS , OR FR AYS ON
HAR NE S S OR S LING WE B B ING.
STORAGE
5-54.
The SPIES master stows the SPIES as follows:
1.
Protect nylon materials from direct sunlight as much as possible to avoid ultraviolet
deterioration.
2.
Stow the SPIES rope in an aviator's kit bag for protection when not in use.
3.
Use bins or similar facilities to store SPIES equipment. Use shelves that are at least 4 inches
from the walls and 12 inches from the floor. Ensure that storage areas are well ventilated and
free of oil, acid, cleaning compounds, and other contaminants. Avoid stowing equipment
above or near hot water pipes or other heat sources.
RIGGING OF A UH-1H AND UH-60
5-55.
To rig the UH-lH or UH-60 helicopter (with cargo hook) for a SPIES Operation, use the following
equipment:
• One SPIES rope with deployment bag.
• Two 11-foot or 9-foot, three- or four-loop, Type 26 cargo slings.
• Two Type IV connector links.
• Nine locking snaplinks.
• One 12-foot sling rope.
• One roll of heavy-duty ("100 mile-an-hour") tape.
• One block of wood measuring 4 by 4 by 18 inches.
• One fire ax (for use during emergency cutaway procedures).
FM 3-55.93
5-17
Chapter 5
Note: For UH-1H or UH-60 helicopters without cargo hooks, use the same equipment plus
two additional 9-foot or 11-foot, three- or four-loops, Type 26 cargo slings, two additional
Type IV connector links, and a total of 16 locking snaplinks.
5-56.
The primary attachment point for the SPIES rope is the cargo hook. At the end of the SPIES rope,
the polyurethane-encapsulated eye is attached to the cargo hook. The two 9- or 11-foot-long, cargo
suspension slings joined together by a Type IV link to form one continuous sling. The team stretches out
this sling on the helicopter deck. They take one end under the helicopter and through the eye of the SPIES
rope, and they connect it on the other end of the sling using a Type IV link assembly. The straps are taped
with 100-mph tape at 12-inch intervals (Figure 5-3). On the UH-1H only, the sling is passed between the
helicopter skids and the fuselage. For both models, they can use locally procured padding to protect the
sling from damage around the edge of the cargo hatch.
Figure 5-3. SPIES rope rigging on UH-60.
5-18
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
5-57.
Once the team secures the SPIES rope and cargo straps, they secure the straps running across the
deck of the helicopter. To do this takes eight snaplinks. The team spaces the snaplinks evenly across the
deck, alternating from one side of the strap to the other, and from top and bottom. The first snaplink goes
from the rear of the strap around the bottom two straps, and the next snaplink goes from the front of the
cargo strap around the top two sections of the strap. This continues until the team establishes at least four
points (Figure 5-4).
Figure 5-4. Rigging of snap links.
FM 3-55.93
5-19
Chapter 5
5-58.
The 4-inch by 4-inch block of wood is taped down along the right edge of the doorway so the
cargo strap crosses the block perpendicularly at the middle. The wood block serves as a chopping block pad
in case of an emergency cutaway (Figure 5-5).
Figure 5-5. Rigging of wood block.
5-59.
Once the cargo strap and wood block are secured, the excess cargo strap is gathered on the
opposite side of the wood block and taped to the floor of the aircraft (Figure 5-6).
Figure 5-6. Excess cargo straps secured.
5-20
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
5-60.
The sling rope is then tied to the SPIES rope by a Prusik knot about 2 to 3 feet below the cargo
hook (Figure 5-7). A bowline knot with a half hitch is then tied to the running end and the ninth snap link
is inserted and connected to a cargo ring in the middle of the aircraft floor. This line serves as a recovery
line for the rope so that the aircrew can retrieve the rope into the aircraft. The recovery rope should be long
enough so the weight on the SPIES rope is hanging from the cargo hook and not the recovery rope.
Figure 5-7. Recovery line with Prusik knot.
5-61.
If the SPIES rope is not to be used immediately, it is neatly coiled and placed on the opposite side
of the aircraft from the wood block, ensuing it is not tangled or interferes with normal aircraft operations.
5-62.
If the helicopter has no cargo hook, or if the hook is not working properly, the team can still use
the SPIES by doubling up on the cargo slings and Type IV links. This places two cargo straps side by side,
for a total of four slings and four Type IV links.
5-63.
The team must use caution when using the UH-lH, because different configurations of the
helicopter may make rigging difficult. Some of them have steps, which get in the way during both
installation and operation. Others have rocket pods or mounted machine guns. The team might have to
hook up two different UH-1s in two different ways.
FM 3-55.93
5-21
Chapter 5
RIGGING OF A CH-46 OR CH-47
5-64.
The CH-46 and CH-47 require
• One SPIES rope with deployment bag.
• Two 9-foot or two 11-foot, three- or four-loop slings.
• Four Type IV connectors.
• Eight oval snap links.
• Heavy-duty tape (100-mph tape).
• A 12-foot length of tubular nylon or one 12-foot sling rope.
5-65.
As they do with the UH models, the team attaches the SPIES rope using the slings and snaplinks
(Figure 5-8). They pass the slings through the eye of the rope and attach it to the outboard cargo tie-down
rings on the aircraft floor. They use two tie-down rings for each sling. They can use locally procured
padding around the edge of the cargo hatch to protect the slings from damage.
5-66.
The team arranges the cargo straps to form two U-shapes. They place one strap forward of the
cargo hole in the center of the aircraft floor, and the other one aft, toward the rear of the helicopter.
However, varying positions of the tie-down rings could require them to adapt their rigging techniques
accordingly. Once they finish the rigging, the cargo straps should hold the SPIES rope comfortably
centered and slightly below the cargo hatch. Attaching snaplinks close to all four tie-down points serves as
a backup in case of a faulty tie-down ring, and reduces the amount of movement in the cargo suspension
straps. The team should use eight snaplinks, two at each point, with swing gates reversed, for added
security.
Figure 5-8. SPIES rigging procedures for CH-46 or CH-47.
5-22
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
FAST-ROPE INSERTION/EXTRACTION SYSTEM
5-67.
The FRIES, also know as "fast rope," is a polyester rope, consisting of three olive drab 1 3/4-inch
strands, and comes in 20-, 40-, 60-, 90-, and 120-foot lengths. The top of the main rope has an 8-inch eye
spliced in, which allows the team to attach the rope to specially equipped helicopters. Before conducting a
fast-rope operation, the team must thoroughly inspect the rope. The following paragraphs cover the
requirements and procedures for FRIES operations; however FM 3-05.210 and USASOC Reg 350-6 cover
training requirements.
INSPECTION
5-68.
The team lays out the rope so they can inspect the full length for fraying and the eyelet on the end
for excessive wear. Snags from normal use will not significantly weaken the rope. A rope with several
strands frayed in one particular spot or any single strand cut halfway through can not be used. If the fast
rope gets wet, team members "S"-fold it or hang it in a dry, warm area out of direct sunlight. It must dry
thoroughly before the next use. If the team uses the fast rope in salt water or becomes imbedded with dirt
or mud, the rope must be washed in fresh water within 72 hours and then dried as described above. Inspect
the rope for contamination by acid, alkaline compounds, salt water, fire extinguishing solutions, or
petroleum-based solvents. Although ropes gradually change color uniformly with use, this does not
necessarily indicate a decrease in strength, unless the change is due to contact with strong chemicals.
Chemicals usually cause spotting, not uniform discoloration. A DA Form 5752-R for each rope must be
maintained. See TM 10-1670-262-12&P for detailed maintenance and inspection information on FRIES
equipment. The aviation unit is responsible for installing, removing, storing, and maintaining the FRIES
mounting bars.
RIGGING OF THE UH-60
5-69.
The aviation unit is responsible for rigging the aircraft (Figure 5-9 and Figure 5-10). The FRIES
master and selected personnel may rig or assist in the rigging under the supervision of the aircrew.
Personnel
• Ensure the aviation unit has removed the center row, which has nine seats.
• Ensure the aviation unit has provided in-flight floor restraints for fast-rope personnel. These
restraints can include seat belts, sling ropes, or CGU straps.
• Remove both of the storage pins, and allow the bars to rotate down.
• Extend the fast-rope bars out to their desired length, fully extended for insertions, and insert the
storage pin in the correct hole.
• Inspect the bar for cracks and for security of nuts and bolts.
• Rig the fast rope to the fast-rope attachment point, as follows:
Remove safety pin from the fast-rope release system and apply upward pressure to cabin
wall-mounted release handle, releasing the gate.
Insert woven loop the fast rope into the attachment point.
Insert the gate through the woven loop of the fast rope and into the receptacle.
Apply a downward pressure to cabin wall-mounted release handle while pushing the gate out
until the gate is fully seated in the receptacle (locking position).
Back-coil the fast rope and secure it to the cabin floor; or, insert the fast-rope retention strap
through the coil, and suspend the fast rope from the ceiling of the fuel tank. Finally, use the
safety pin to secure the quick-release mechanism (Figure 5-10).
FM 3-55.93
5-23
Chapter 5
Figure 5-9. Fast-rope rigging procedures for UH-60.
Figure 5-10. UH-60 rigged for fast roping
5-24
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
OTHER AIRCRAFT
5-70.
The CH-47, CH-46, RH-53, and HH-53 aircraft use the same type of fast-rope bar, only double, for
for use with the ramps (Figure 5-11).
Figure 5-11. Fast-rope rigging procedures for other aircraft.
SAFETY
5-71.
All personnel involved in FRIES operations are responsible for identifying hazardous situations
and preventing injuries of personnel. Anyone who observes an unsafe condition or act is authorized to halt
the operation and inform the FRIES master or the pilot in command. See USSOCOM Reg 350-6 for the
most current safety requirements.
Emergencies after Roping Starts
5-72.
In case of an emergency, personnel follow emergency procedures:
Unsafe Drift or Premature Liftoff
• FRIES master, assistant FRIES masters, safety, or roper stops the stick.
• Ropers stop descent and lock in.
• FRIES master or crewman informs the pilot in command and guides him in, moving the aircraft
back on target.
• Unit continues operations.
Rope Hung or Snagged
• Safety ensures ropers are off the rope and clear.
• Aircraft descends or lands, as needed.
• Ground personnel free the rope.
• Unit resumes the operation.
Premature or Unintnetional Deplyment of the Fast Rope
• Notifies the pilot in command.
• Follows the aircrew's instructions.
FM 3-55.93
5-25
Chapter 5
Lost Communications
5-73.
During all training and operations, the pilot in command or the crewmen and the FRIES master
must use the intercom. If the intercom fails, they use hand-and-arm signals until they can clear the rope and
restore the intercom:
Stop Stick--A clenched fist touching the chest.
Ropes--Open palm toward the door in a horizontal motion.
Aircraft Movement--An open palm moving and facing in the direction required.
Stop Aircraft Movement--A clenched fist.
DANGER
HOLD ONTO THE S AFE TY LINE DUR ING THE CR ITICAL TIME
BETWEEN THE ONE-MINUTE WARNING AND BEFORE "ROPERS
AWAY." WHEN THE DOORS ARE OPEN, ANY SUDDEN AIRCRAFT
MOVE ME NT COULD THR OW YOU OUT OF THE AIR CR AFT.
DUTIES OF FAST-ROPE MASTER
• Brief members of his team and aircrew.
• Inspect team members to ensure that their equipment is configured correctly. For example,
ensure that each member has his work gloves and has tied down all equipment on his person.
• Backbrief, and then inspect aircraft rigging.
• Install the FRIES rope in the aircraft and conduct safety checks.
• Relay 10-minute, 6-minute, and l-minute warnings to team members. Use time warnings as a
tool to help synchronize aircrew and ropers' actions. Modify time warnings according to user
needs, but always issue 1-minute warning.
• Break chemical lights, if required, at the 6-minute warning. During night operations, mark the
rope with six chemical lights:
Two at the mount.
Two at the end.
Two 15 feet from the end.
Note: Not all chemical lights are visible at night, even through image-intensifying night
vision devices. The FRIES master must coordinate with the pilots during the air mission brief
to finalize the types and colors of chemical lights to use.
5-26
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
• Ensure the rope is properly configured for deployment (back-coiled to prevent tangles).
• Ensure the team members are in order of exit no later than the 1-minute warning.
• Confirm target on final approach.
• Deploy the rope and ensures it reaches the ground.
• During night operations, wear NVG, see and verify that you see two horizontal chemical lights.
• Deploy personnel, advising the pilots by announcing--
"Rope out" when deploying the rope over the target.
"Ropers away" when the first roper exits on the fast rope.
"Rope clear" to inform the pilots the aircraft is clear for flight.
"Hold" to inform the pilots to hold the aircraft position.
"Move, [left, right, forward, or back]" as needed.
• Account for personnel and signals aircrew.
INDIVIDUAL ROPER
• Understand all aspects of the insertion and emergency procedures.
• Configure his individual equipment correctly to prevent snagging and injuries.
• At the command STAND BY (given at 1-minute warning), check self one last time and prepare
to exit the position.
• At the command GO, maintain an orderly formation and exit rapidly.
• Grasp the rope firmly before exiting--never jump for the rope.
• On exit, rotate your body 90 to 180 degrees to ensure your equipment clears the aircraft.
• Exit at 1-second intervals. Begin to slow descent about halfway down to avoid landing on the
other ropers.
• Descend the rope, controlling your speed.
• Brake two-thirds of the way down to avoid landing on ropers that preceded you.
• Prepare to land just before reaching the ground by spreading your legs about shoulder-width
apart, and with your knees slightly bent.
• At landing, quickly move clear of the rope to avoid colliding with descending ropers.
ARMY AVIATION AND AIR ASSAULT
5-74.
Army aviation can increase LRSU mobility as well as flexibility. Once inserted behind enemy
lines, LRS teams gather combat intelligence that can lead to rapid and decisive action by friendly forces. A
successful air assault derives from carefully analyzing the factors of METT-TC and from detailed and
precise reverse planning. The latter actually consists of five basic plans, all of which leaders develop for
each air assault. To make the best use of available time, R&S squadron insertion and extraction section in
coordination with the LRSC headquarters normally coordinate and develop these plans. If time is limited,
planners can compress the steps of planning, or they can conduct them concurrently. They can also
supplement detailed, written plans and orders with SOPs. Normally, a battalion is the lowest level that
plans, coordinates, and controls air assault operations. Even when companies and lower conduct
operations, most planning occurs at battalion or higher.
GROUND TACTICAL PLAN
5-75.
The commander's ground tactical plan forms the foundation of a successful air assault operation.
All other plans must support it. It specifies actions in the objective area to accomplish the mission, and it
also addresses subsequent operations.
FM 3-55.93
5-27
Chapter 5
LANDING PLAN
5-76.
The landing plan supports the ground tactical plan. The landing plan sequences elements into the
AO. It ensures units arrive at the designated locations on time and prepared to execute the ground
tactical plan.
AIR MOVEMENT PLAN
5-77.
The air movement plan is based on the ground tactical and landing plans. It schedules the
movement of Soldiers, equipment, and supplies from PZs to LZs by air.
LOADING PLAN
5-78.
The loading plan is based on the air movement plan. It ensures that Soldiers, equipment, and
supplies are loaded on the correct aircraft. Planning aircraft loads helps ensure unit integrity. Cross-loading
may be necessary to ensure survivability of C2 assets and the mix of weapons arriving at the LZ ready to
fight. The detachment or team leader should ensure the aircraft is loaded so that dismounting Soldiers can
react promptly and contribute to mission accomplishment.
STAGING PLAN
5-79.
The staging plan is based on the loading plan. It prescribes when and in what order ground units
(Soldiers, equipment, and supplies) will move to the PZ (order of movement).
PICKUP AND LANDING ZONES
5-80.
Pickup and landing zone size requirements depend on the type and number of helicopters and the
minimum acceptable distances between aircraft. Small unit leaders should be skilled in selecting and
marking of PZs and LZs.
MARKING TECHNIQUES
5-81.
During the day, a ground guide marks the PZ or LZ for the lead aircraft by holding his individual
weapon over his head, by displaying a folded VS-17 panel chest-high, or by other identifiable means. At
night, an inverted "Y" marks the landing point of the lead aircraft. Chemical light sticks or beanbag lights
help maintain light discipline (Figure 5-12). Each additional aircraft that lands in the same PZ or LZ
requires an additional light. For an observation, utility, or attack aircraft, the exact landing point is marked
with a single light. For cargo aircraft (CH-47, CH-53, CH-54), each additional landing point is marked with
two lights. The two lights are placed 10 meters apart and aligned in the aircraft's direction of flight.
5-28
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
Figure 5-12. Marking procedures for landing and pickup zones.
CAUTION
Not all chemical lights are visible at night, even through
image-intensifying night vision devices. The FRIES master must
coordinate with the pilots during the air mission brief to finalize the
types and colors of chemical lights to use.
LANDING POINT
5-82.
Each aircraft requires a circular landing point separate from those designated for other aircraft,
free of obstacles. Table 5-1 shows the minimum recommended landing point diameters (in meters).
Table 5-1. Minimum recommended landing point diameters.
Minimum
Landing
Aircraft
Diameter
Observation helicopters
25 meters
UH-1, AH-1
35 meters
UH-60, AH-64
50 meters
Cargo helicopters
80 meters
SURFACE CONDITIONS
5-83.
The surface of the PZ or LZ should allow clear visibility of the touchdown point. It should be free
of landing hazards such as blowing sand, dust, or snow. It should contain no obstacles that could damage
landing aircraft such as trees, stumps, or large rocks. The surface must be firm enough to support the
traffic. It should have adequate drainage to allow rainfall to run off. Unacceptable levels of CBRN
contamination can preclude the use of an area. If part of an area falls short for any reason, that part is not
used.
FM 3-55.93
5-29
Chapter 5
GROUND SLOPE
5-84.
Generally, if the ground slopes 0 to 6 percent, then the pilot should land upslope. If the ground
slopes 7 to 15 percent, then he should land side slope. Over 15 percent, he should not touch down at all, but
he may, if conditions allow, hover to drop off or pick up personnel or equipment.
Obstacles
5-85.
For planning purposes, use an obstacle clearance ratio of 10 to 1 on the approach and departure
ends of the PZ and LZ. That is, a helicopter approaching or departing directly above a 10-foot tall tree
needs 100 feet of horizontal clearance. Mark obstacles within the PZ and LZ only if the enemy cannot see
the markings. At night, mark them with red lights, but turn them on only when the PZ or LZ is in use. In
the daytime, use red panels instead of lights.
Approach and Departure
5-86.
Analyze the terrain surrounding a possible PZ or LZ for air traffic patterns. In a tactical situation,
avoid repeatedly approaching the PZ or LZ over the same ground. Choose approaches that are free of
obstacles. Pilots should land into the wind, but away from the sun. Ideally, they approach and depart along
the axis of the LZ, over the lowest obstacle, and into the wind.
Load Size
5-87.
When a helicopter is loaded to near maximum lift capacity, it needs more distance to lift off and
land. It cannot ascend or descend vertically. The nearer the load to maximum, the larger the PZ and LZ
must be to accommodate a flight.
Operations
5-88.
Before the aircraft arrives, the PZ control party secures the PZ. Both the PZ control party and the
Soldiers and equipment are positioned in the LRS team PZ or ORP. When occupying the team PZ or ORP,
the team leader should (Figure 5-13)
• Maintain all-round security of the PZ or ORP.
• Maintain communications (ground-to-air).
• Brief the marking team for the exact aircraft landing point, and check their equipment.
• Establish priority of loading for each Soldier.
• If time permits a detailed plan, use a coordination checklist.
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LANDING ZONE OPERATIONS
5-89.
The following priority of action applies when landing on an LZ:
1.
The LRS team leader gets the landing direction from the pilot, and then alerts all team
members before landing. This helps orient them to the LZ, particularly at night.
2.
When the aircraft lands, personnel immediately unbuckle their seat belts and exit the aircraft
with all equipment.
3.
As soon as the crew chief or pilot directs them, the LRS team unloads the aircraft.
4.
The team moves 15 to 20 meters away from the side of the aircraft and assumes the prone
position facing away from the aircraft, weapons at the ready position, until the aircraft departs
the LZ.
5.
The team moves to a predetermined location using techniques that fit the terrain. Once the
team reaches the concealed assembly point, the team leader quickly counts personnel and
equipment, and then proceeds.
6.
The team moves quickly to an assembly area out of sight and hearing of the LZ. They remain
only long enough to adjust their senses to the surrounding environment and to verify the
location of the LZ.
7.
If planed and coordinated during the air mission brief, the insertion aircraft may be loitering
nearby in case the team is compromised and needs hasty extraction. This is critical if the team
is engaged by enemy forces on the LZ.
8.
If the team makes contact on or near the LZ, they immediately execute the appropriate
battle drill.
9.
The LRS team leader calls for CAS, CCA or fire support, if available.
10. Once the team disengages from the enemy force, the team leader moves the unit to a covered
and concealed position, accounts for personnel and equipment, and decides whether to
continue with the mission.
11. If the team leader decides to call for emergency extraction.
a. The team leader gives a direction and distance to the emergency extraction site from the
insertion site.
b. As the aircraft approaches, the team leader initiates a directional signal using, for
example, pen gun flares, or a strobe light with a directional funnel attached.
c. This ground-to-air signal lets the pilot determine a clock direction and distance from the
aircraft to the team's location. The pilot identifies the signal initiated by the team.
d. After confirming the signal, the pilot forms his approach, assisted by the team leader.
OBSTACLES
5-90.
These include any obstructions, such as trees, stumps, or rocks that could interfere with aircraft
operation on the ground. During daylight, the aircrew is responsible for avoiding obstacles on the PZ or LZ.
For night and limited visibility operations, all obstacles are marked with red lights. The following criteria
are used to mark obstacles:
1.
Mark the near and far sides of the obstacle on the aircraft approach route.
2.
If the obstacle is on the aircraft departure route, mark the near side of the obstacle.
3.
If the obstacle protrudes into the PZ or LZ, but is outside of the flight route of the aircraft,
mark the near side of the obstacle.
4.
Mark large obstacles located on the approach route by circling the obstacle with red lights.
5.
(Signalman) use arm-and-hand signals to guide aircraft in for landing. Stand to the right front
of the aircraft, where the pilot can see him best. At night, use lighted batons or flashlights in
each hand. When using flashlights, avoid blinding the pilot. Keep the batons and flashlights
lit at all times when signaling. The speed of the arm movement indicates the desired speed of
aircraft compliance with the signal.
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UH-60 LOADING SEQUENCE
5-91.
To maintain communications with the pilot, the team leader--
1.
Uses the aircraft troop commander's handset or requests a separate headset. Initiates
movement once the aircraft has landed.
2.
When the far- and near-side teams move to the aircraft, in file, leads the near-side group
(Figure 5-14).
3.
Ensures that all personnel wear and carry rucksacks on the aircraft.
4.
Notifies the crew chief when all team members board and prepare for liftoff.
5.
Ensures that all personnel buckle up as soon as they reach their assigned seats.
Figure 5-14. UH-60 loading sequence.
Section III. VE HICLE OPE R ATIONS
The LRS team can move by vehicle from the planning area to a point of departure in a secure area. Traditionally
the team normally dismounts at the FLOT, makes final preparations, and conducts a forward passage of lines.
LRS teams now have the capability to conduct mounted operations providing relatively rapid and secure
operational assets within the AO. A LRS team no longer need rely on outside support in order to insert, extract,
infiltrate, and exfiltrate in the AO.
MOBILITY PLATFORMS
5-92.
LRSU use a variety of vehicles to support themselves when conducting operations. The use of
all-terrain vehicles (ATV), variations of the HMMWV, and nonstandard tactical vehicles (NSTVs) allow
the commander to rapidly employ teams with reduced resupply requirements while conducting operations.
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5-93.
The ATV’s primary mission is short-range mounted reconnaissance. The ATV provides the
capability to conduct surveillance and reconnaissance missions over a 48 hour or 250-mile range (carrying
extra fuel) without resupply in austere environments over difficult terrain.
5-94.
The different variations of the HMMWV such as the army standard M1025A2 or the M1114 are
good platforms to conduct long-range R&S in a desert environment.
5-95.
NSTV come in a variety of configurations such as four-door pickup trucks and sport utility
vehicles. The NSTV are also used to conduct R&S missions, but allow the LRS teams flexibility when
operating in areas that limit the use of standard military vehicles.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
5-96.
Planning and preparation for a mounted mission starts long before the LRS team is alerted.
Preparations include training and rehearsals such as mounted battle drills, laager/hide sites and vehicle
maintenance. The distance from the FOB to the operational area, or even the staging (launch) site may
require additional transportation. Various infiltration combinations of aircraft, rail line, or surface ships
may be required to get the mounted team positioned to insert into an operational area. These infiltration
combinations may also be used to increase the operational range of the mounted team by decreasing the
required distance for overland insertion. When an operation requires either aircraft and surface ships or
other combinations, a rendezvous must take place to transfer the team. The method selected should be one
that will land or position the element with the least chance of detection as close as possible to its AO and as
simply and rapidly as possible. Factors to consider include—
• Security.
• Size of the element.
• Operational requirements relating to the overt or covert nature of the mission.
• Capabilities of personnel and equipment loads.
• Availability of transport and delivery capabilities.
• Weather, terrain, hydrographic, and astronomical data, and conditions in the delivery area.
• Enemy and friendly situation in the delivery area and AO.
• The team may be delivered into the staging area, delivery area or the AO via
Surface ships.
Amphibious landing craft.
Fixed- or rotary-wing aircraft.
Rail lines.
Line haul transport.
Any combination of the above.
PRE-MISSION CONSIDERATIONS
5-97.
Elements should consider the following factors when planning for a successful infiltration.
Mission
5-98.
The mission determines what and how much ammunition and supplies are necessary, including
special equipment.
Enemy and Friendly Situation
5-99.
Order of battle (OB) affects the routes, communications procedures and capabilities, external
exfiltration capabilities, and sources of resupply.
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Troops Available and Training Level of Unit Personnel
5-100. LRS teams are proficient in air infiltration and dismounted operations. However, mounted
operations require additional training such as cross-country and night driving with and without night vision
aids and vehicle maintenance, recovery operations, and use and care of mounted weapon systems.
Terrain and Weather
5-101. Terrain and weather affect route planning, personal equipment, and special equipment needs.
Light conditions determine the time available for movement.
Time and Distance
5-102. These factors primarily affect the amount of required fuel for the vehicles and subsistence for team
members, since distance and duration are similar.
Civilian Populace
5-103. Mission planning must consider the local civilians in the AO and what to do in case of mission
compromise.
Equipment and Supplies
5-104. The pre-mission considerations help determine the teams' logistical needs. The team must plan for
the minimum levels of all needed supplies. Mission essential equipment and supplies take priority in the
allocation of space. During planning, the team may find that pre-positioned equipment is available in the
AO. This equipment can range from fuel and water to a complete HMMWV with weapons,
communications equipment, and repair parts. The availability of pre-positioned supplies greatly reduces the
number of vehicles and amount of equipment the unit must deploy with, and reduces the deployment
timeline. Additionally, when planning for deployment, the unit must allocate time to inspect and prepare
the equipment when it arrives in country.
Collective and Individual Training
5-105. LRS teams are capable of operating in all types of terrain and using various insertion and
extraction techniques. However, all teams require training to become and stay proficient.
Collective Training
5-106. Training required for the mounted LRS teams include cross-country and night driving (with and
without night vision aids), vehicle navigation, vehicle infiltration, garage site, MSS and hide site
establishment, vehicle maintenance, recovery operations, mounted battle drills, and dismounted crew battle
drills. Priority for team collective training for the vehicles must always include maintenance.
Individual Training
5-107. The following paragraphs address suggested individual training team members:
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Team Leader and Assistant Team Leader--Mounted mission planning, detachment mounted
training concepts, mounted employment, battle drills, load planning and vehicle maintenance
management. The assistant team leader should also be hazardous material certified.
Senior Scout Observer--Mounted mission planning, mounted employment, battle drills, vehicle
maintenance, load planning and hazardous material certified.
Radiotelephone Operator (RTO)--Mounted employment, battle drills, electrical wiring techniques,
and vehicle maintenance.
Assistant Radiotelephone Operator (ARTO)--Mounted employment, battle drills, electrical wiring
techniques, and vehicle maintenance.
Scout Observer--Mounted employment, battle drills, and vehicle maintenance.
Cross-Training
5-108. LRS team members require thorough cross-training. Each vehicle crew must be able to operate
independently for extended periods of time.
Vehicle Preparation
5-109. LRS personnel prepare as necessary for airland, paradrop, waterborne, and overland insertions.
They plan for and spend sufficient time preparing their vehicles for the assigned mission, from infiltration
to exfiltration. They must be prepared to conduct all maintenance and repair operations in the field.
5-110. Team members cross load each vehicle so that if required it can act independently during the
mission. Total weight of the vehicle, cargo and personnel is a prime consideration during operations. An
overloaded vehicle handles poorly, consumes fuel at a higher rate, and will experience more maintenance
problems. Items having the greatest effect on weight are fuel, water (50 pounds per 5 gallon container),
ammunition by type (including shipping containers), and personal equipment.
Equipment and Personnel Preparation
5-111. An important aspect to pre-mission preparation is vehicle maintenance and keeping all equipment
in a ready status. Members must inspect and exercise their vehicles even while in garrison. The assistant
team leader is responsible for status of the team’s vehicle. Preventive maintenance checks and service are
normally conducted, at a minimum, weekly while in garrison. This includes road testing the team's
vehicles. This test should include on- and off-road operation in all gears. Check for wheel alignment and
listen for any unusual noises.
5-112. Keep the basic equipment common to each mission on the vehicle at all times (Figure 5-15). This
equipment includes tools; petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL); spare parts; recovery items; tire repair
and other miscellaneous items. This method will not only save loading time and storage space, it reduces
chance that these items will be forgotten. Prepare each vehicle using a unit standardized vehicle load plan.
This list is compiled from unit SOPs, experience, and mission requirements. The unit vehicle load plan
standardizes the location of equipment common to all in each vehicle. This ensures that anyone assigned to
the unit can go to any vehicle and locate or pack team equipment. Control and assist the preparations after
alert using pre-mission checklists.
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Figure 5-15. Example vehicle load configuration.
5-113. Leaders conduct inspections to ensure the vehicles are loaded properly. Upon receipt of a notice to
deploy, inspect the unit's vehicles as soon as possible to ensure mechanical reliability. Conduct this
inspection at least 30 days before vehicle shipment (or as early as possible) to allow motor pool personnel
time to correct deficiencies. Motor pool personnel normally help inexperienced team personnel perform
this inspection. It is key the team personnel be present at the vehicle maintenance inspection. Test-drive
each vehicle to ensure mechanical reliability. Make sure the inspection takes the vehicle up to operating
temperatures. Check climbing ability, winch operation with load, transmission and transfer case
performance through all gears on challenging terrain, engine performance, and wheel alignment. Also listen
for any unusual noises or rattles. After the inspection and test, rate each vehicle by performance. The
stronger vehicles should perform the more challenging aspects of the mission. Avoid overloading or
hauling trailers with the weaker vehicles.
5-114. The next inspection should take place 3 to 5 days before load out or during planning. Inspect the
items normally kept on the vehicle and all mission-related equipment for accountability and serviceability.
The last inspection should be the normal final inspection or spot check done during the last few hours
before the infiltration or shipment of the equipment.
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5-115. Plan for sufficient fuel supplies. Fuel trucks, fuel points or resupply may not be available in the
mission area. Frequently, it is difficult or impossible to get any kind of resupply. For a HMMWV, a good
figure is 9 miles per gallon (mpg) for initial estimation of fuel requirements. Plan for and take adequate
water. Minimum water planning figures are 4 to 6 quarts per man per day for mounted operations in a
desert environment. Take additional water for dismounted missions within the mounted role. Omit the
water carried on individual load-bearing equipment (LBE) for this requirement. Team members use a
vehicle water bottle for the crew. They never use the water supplies on their LBE unless separated from the
vehicles during dismounted operations or when placed in a survival or evasion situation. As a rule,
consume water from the vehicle’s stores first before using personal stores.
5-116. Plan for and take adequate food supplies. Remember that food consumption in hot, dry climates is
generally less than in other climates. Individuals should pack most of their food items in a food bag (ditty
bag) instead of their rucksack to limit the extent of unpacking their rucksack when getting meals. A ditty
bag ensures they will have a minimal kit of food, survival and evasion items on hand. Construct the ditty
bag from a durable bag large enough to hold three days of food, minimal sleeping gear, personal evasion
and survival gear, first aid kit, and personal toilet articles. Pack at least three meals in the rucksack, so
individual team members will have a food supply if required to abandon the vehicle rapidly. If several cases
of food are packed on the vehicle, the crew must only open one at the time. This aids in estimating how
long the food will last, and prevents the constant shuffling of equipment. Place ammunition where it can be
accessed quickly. Secure large ammunition cans or containers to prevent injury in accidents due to shifting
loads. Construct and position a vehicle destruction kit for quick accessibility. Each member should have
three basic loads of small arms ammunition: one on the LBE (primary), one in rucksack (secondary), and
one in an ammunition can positioned in the vehicle (contingency). The ammunition can in the vehicle
should contain all contingency ammunition for the crew. Position basic signaling ammunitions near the
navigator’s position. These would include colored smoke and colored star clusters to aid in identification.
5-117. Plan for maintenance and repair contingencies based on the mission, the terrain and weather in the
AO, mission duration, and maintenance experience. A detachment normally carries one general mechanic’s
toolbox, with metric supplement. In addition, each vehicle carries its own operator vehicle maintenance set
and a small supply of motor oil, transmission fluid, and brake fluid for basic maintenance needs.
5-118. For long duration missions, a trailer towed by a second and third vehicle can carry additional
maintenance supplies. Each vehicle should also carry one complete replacement set of fluids, including
motor oil, transmission fluid, brake fluid, and antifreeze. Each vehicle should also carry basic spare parts
such as fan belts, upper and lower radiator hoses, and main fuel tank drain plugs. Construct a battle damage
repair kit with such items as a tire plug kit, automotive liquid metal, assorted hose clamps, and radiator
repair kit (FM 4-30.31).
5-119. On long-duration missions requiring trailer usage, construct an additional spare parts box to carry
such items as starter, alternator, half shafts, glow plugs, and battery. The team will normally carry enough
POL and replacement parts to repair any maintenance problem in the field within their capability. Once
everything is packed and ready for deployment, strap down and secure all equipment and supplies. All
equipment be tied down securely for cross-country driving.
Operational Employment
5-120. The success of the mission and survival of the LRS team lies in its ability to infiltrate, move,
conduct operations, and exfiltrate--all without being detected. In mounted operations, survival depends on
moving mostly during times of limited visibility and using proper camouflage techniques at all other times.
Infiltration and Exfiltration
5-121. The threat to each method of infiltration and exfiltration is different. The following paragraphs
illustrate typical threats to a mounted team when infiltrating by air or by ground.
FM 3-55.93
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Chapter 5
Air infiltration and Exfiltration
5-122. Mounted LRS teams infiltrating and exfiltrating by air must avoid an extensive and integrated
enemy air defense system. Such a system provides complete coverage at all altitudes with a high
redundancy of coverage in heavily defended areas. Soviet doctrine, currently used by many nations, has
tried to improve low-altitude detection.
Ground Infiltration and Exfiltration
5-123. Mounted LRS teams infiltrating and exfiltrating by land must avoid security forces. These forces
employ sensors, minefields, barriers, patrols, checkpoints, and other populace control measures to detect
clandestine movement across closed borders. Once the mounted team crosses the border, it still faces rear
area security threats.
Planning Considerations
5-124. The following paragraphs address the planning considerations for air and ground infiltration:
Air Infiltration
5-125. The mounted LRS team can use several platforms to infiltrate its mission area.
C-17A
5-126. The C-17A Globemaster III can be used as an infiltration platform. Planning
considerations include—
• Travel time to operational area is greatly reduced.
• Team can carry a mounted weapons system.
• Vehicle is mission-ready, except weapons system is unloaded.
• Aircraft can carry an entire team with trailers loaded and prepared for movement.
Τeam can carry spare parts and additional mission equipment such as trailers and pallets.
• Runway must be C-17A-capable, with a packed dirt runway at least 916 meters long.
C-130/MC-130
5-127. The C-130 Hercules aircraft has a great deal of advantages as an infiltration platform. Important
planning considerations include—
• The team can fit two vehicles per aircraft.
• Weapons systems can be mounted.
• Vehicle is mission-ready, except weapons system is unloaded.
• Everyone can ride on the aircraft.
• On the C-130, vehicle fuel tanks must be half empty (without waiver).
• On the MC-130, vehicles allowed on board with a full tank, with prior coordination.
• These aircraft require a C-130-capable dirt strip (916 meters).
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CH-47 Helicopter, Internal Load
5-128. The basic HMMWV will fit inside a CH-47 helicopter with two inches of clearance around the
vehicle (Figure 5-16). This clearance makes for a very tight fit and must be carefully rehearsed with the
aircrew. Planning considerations include—
• Crew must rig the vehicle.
• No objects may extend from the top or sides of the vehicle.
• The weapon system is stored.
• The team cannot use trailers.
• Available rehearsal time with driver and aircrew.
• A requirement for flat LZ or PZ. Any surface undulation will cause the internal frame of the
CH-47 to bend. This bend will lock the GMV in the helicopter or prevent it from being loaded
or unloaded.
Figure 5-16. Procedures for loading HMMWV into CH-47 for infiltration.
MH-47 Helicopter, Sling Load
5-129. Using procedures developed with 5th SFG(A) and 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment,
the MH-47 can land, hook up the vehicle, and load the vehicle crew on the same aircraft. The procedures
for working with an MH-47 are different from conventional sling load operations and require coordination
and rehearsals. Planning considerations include the following:
• Need for additional sling sets.
• Rigging the vehicle.
• Rehearsal with aircrew.
Ground infiltration
5-130. The HMMWV leaves a unique vehicle signature, and its tracks are difficult to conceal. Take
extreme care during route selection.
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Chapter 5
Range
5-131. Mission planning range for a mounted LRS team with a full combat load is 10 days or 1,000 miles
without resupply. A combat loaded HMMWV can expect to carry at least six additional 5-gallon fuel cans
and six 5-gallon water cans on the back of the vehicle. This planning range can be extended to 10+ days or
1,000+ miles if using trailers to carry more supplies (fuel, food, and water), or if using an advanced
operational base or caches for en route resupply.
Rigging of Vehicle
5-132. A common mistake is to take everything when using a vehicle. Take care to properly load and
configure the vehicles for a long distance movement.
Trailer(s)
5-133. These can be taken for use en route or cached.
Fundamentals of Movement
5-134. When planning and conducting movement, consider the below listed fundamentals of movement
to reduce the chance of enemy observation and contact.
Cover and Concealment
5-135. Use terrain features and vegetation that offer protection from enemy observation. When using
cover and concealment to its full advantage, personnel will usually need to compromise between security
and speed of movement.
Skylining
5-136. Avoid sky lining. Select routes that avoid high ground that may silhouette the vehicles.
Chokepoints
5-137. Avoid chokepoints. Chokepoints or areas where the terrain naturally channels routes are often
sites for ambushes or areas that the enemy may have under observation. If a chokepoint proves impossible
to avoid, then reconnoiter it thoroughly before moving through it.
Populated Areas
5-138. Avoid known or suspected populated areas. For example, in desert environments, this means all
water holes, because the populace--and the enemy--know all the water holes. A mounted LRS team cannot
move covertly if people know they are in the area.
Movement Discipline
5-139. Practice movement discipline. Movement discipline means adhering to your light, noise, litter,
and interval rules. It also means keeping your speed slow enough so that you do not leave a large dust
signature (usually 10 to 12 miles per hour [mph] on most surfaces at night, slower during the day).
Security
5-140. Maintain 360-degree security at all times to avoid being surprised. The team leader or the unit
SOP assigns a sector of fire and observation to each vehicle during movement and at halts.
Routes and Contingencies
5-141. Make sure all team members know the route and contingency plans.
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Methods of Travel
5-142. There are two methods of travel in the operational area. Either on existing tracks, trails, or roads,
or traveling cross-country. Each has advantages and disadvantages:
Tracks, Trails, or Roads
Advantages include speed of movement, hard-packed trails that do not easily yield readable
prints and signs of passage, quietness of movement, less stress on vehicles and tires, and
sometimes easier navigation.
Disadvantages are a greater chance of being seen or compromised, natural lanes of observation
and fire for the enemy, and more probable mechanical or manual ambushes. The HMMWV
leaves a distinctive tire trail unlike any other truck.
Cross-Country
Advantages to traveling cross-country include less chance of enemy observation or contact,
usually more cover and concealment, and less chance of an ambush.
Disadvantages are slower rates of movement, more noticeable vehicle tracks and signs of
passage, greater tire failure and vehicle stress, and more difficult navigation. The team must
rehearse cross-country movement in terrain as close as possible to that of the target area
before deployment.
MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES AND MOVEMENT FORMATIONS
5-143. Movement techniques combined with movement formations allow units to conduct tactical
movement in any METT-TC situation. These combinations can be used when all elements are mounted, or
when there is a combination of mounted and dismounted forces, regardless of what type of vehicle is used.
Movement Techniques
5-144. The three standard movement techniques are traveling, traveling overwatch, and bounding
overwatch. Different movement techniques are used based on the likelihood of enemy contact.
Traveling--The traveling movement technique is used when emeny contact is not expected or
likely.
Traveling Overwatch--The traveling overwatch movement technique is used when emeny contact
is possible.
Bounding Overwatch--The bounding overwatch movement technique is used when emeny contact
is likely or expected.
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Formations
5-145. The mounted LRS team can employ a number of different movement formations depending on the
number of vehicles and the situation.
Column and Staggered Column--Use this formation when speed is essential as it moves on a
designated route. The column offers good protection to the flacks, but little to the front and rear.
The lead vehicle or section normally controls column movement by following the planned route
and speed. The staggered column is used in open terrain. Use the visibility rule for interval.
Illumination conditions, terrain and vegetation, and night vision equipment affect this rule. The
driver keeps the vehicle to his front in sight.
Line Formation--Use this formation is best used when maximum reconnaissance forward is
needed.
Wedge and VEE Formations--Use these formations when immediate mutual support and depth is
desired. In the wedge formation the vehicle(s) in the middle of the formation are forward. In the
VEE formation the vehicle(s) on the flanks are forward. These formations can also be used with
extremely wide intervals, determined by visibility, to conduct reconnaissance operations
(Figure 5-17).
Diamond Formation--Use this formation when crossing extremely large open areas. Each section
forms a side of the box when moving forward. Visibility determines the interval between
vehicles in each section. The interval between sections should not be greater than 900 to 1,000
meters. This formation is hard to control; therefore the sections plan for and designate rally
points before they separate.
Figure 5-17. HMMWVs in wedge formation.
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Actions at Halts
5-146. Any time the team conducts a planned halt (short or long), it will also conduct a coordinated
shutdown of all vehicles. The team leader initiates the shutdown using hand and arm signals. He exits his
vehicle and stands where everyone can see him. He waves his arm in a circle over his head, and then drops
it toward the ground. This signals all vehicles to shut down their engines at the same time. When the halt is
over, he uses the same procedure to signal all drivers to start their engines at the same time. If neither the
leader nor the assistant leader can visually signal all of the vehicles at the same time, then either may use
the radio to indicate engine shutdown or engine on. Although radio use should be avoided to lessen the
team’s radio signature, it can be conducted safely if done properly. Once the vehicles have been shut down,
and before any other functions take place, the team conducts a security listening halt. The commander sets
the duration for halts during planning or in team SOPs. Short-duration halts are used to communicate with
higher headquarters, make necessary repairs, or establish a satellite position fix on a GPS receiver. For
halts of less than 15 minutes, the team remains in formation. Personnel man all vehicle weapons and
establish 360-degree security. For halts of more than 15 minutes, the team tries to move off its direction of
travel and reform. During the halt, the team performs necessary tasks. Each Soldier receives a briefing on
the present location. An updated contingency plan is issued if needed.
Coil
5-147. Use this formation when moving in a column formation or along a road or trail. The team moves
into a partial perimeter along the route of march. Members of each vehicle observe their assigned section of
the perimeter. The terrain determines vehicle interval, but it is seldom less than 50 meters.
Laager Sites
5-148. A laager site is a secure vehicle encampment. Mounted teams should use this site to maintain
vehicles, rest crews, plan missions, and hide during daylight.
Types
5-149. The two types of laager sites are short duration (occupied for only one period of daylight) or long
duration (occupied for longer than one period of daylight). During route planning, select tentative primary
and alternate laager sites on the primary and alternate routes. The team should arrive in the general area of
the laager sites about two hours before begin morning nautical twilight (BMNT). This allows time for a
proper reconnaissance and emplacement and camouflage of the vehicles before first light. Upon reaching a
tentative laager site, or before first light, the ATV element or a dismounted element can reconnoiter it.
Once the site is selected, the assistant team leader enters the site on foot and directs incoming vehicles into
position. As each vehicle moves into position, its members receive their areas of responsibility. After the
team is in place, it conducts a listening period to determine if there is any activity in the area.
Tasks
5-150. After the listening period, tasks (in order of priority) are—
• Security.
• Launch a dismounted patrol to erase signs of vehicles into the laager site out to a predetermined
distance set by unit SOP.
• Camouflage one vehicle, or one vehicle per section, at a time. The others provide security.
• Confirm sectors of fire and prepare range cards.
• Emplace early warning devices or claymores.
• Establish observation posts (OPs) or listening posts (LPs), if necessary.
• Establish field telephone communications to each vehicle.
• Reduce security, refuel, perform maintenance, and attend to personal hygiene.
FM 3-55.93
5-45
Chapter 5
Description
5-151. The laager site need not resemble a circle. The terrain and vegetation play a role in locating each
vehicle. All vehicles may be placed in the perimeter if necessary. When conducting detachment operations,
the detachment sergeant’s vehicle (number 2), is normally located in the center of the laager site. This
formation resembles a triangle and allows a greater arc of fire if attacked. When selecting and preparing a
LRS team’s laager site, the priority is concealment, remaining undetected, and if compromised, breaking
contact rapidly (Figure 5-18).
Figure 5-18. Single camouflaged HMMWV.
Occupation
5-152. The LRS team may have to occupy the laager site for more than one period of daylight. Such an
occupation is most common when it needs to wait for more advantageous weather or light conditions
before moving, has deployed a dismounted element on a mission and must remain in the area, or is in a
situation where repairs to equipment must be made before resuming the mission. When occupied for more
than one period of daylight, additional tasks include—
• Enhancing early warning measures.
• Improving continuously defensive positions (to include defensive minefields as necessary).
• Conducting reconnaissance and establishing surveillance of the area.
• Upon vacating the laager site, the team sterilizes the site as much as possible to deny the enemy
intelligence on its operations.
• Continuing to enhance concealment of the site, even if doing so reduces its potential
evacuation routes.
Communications
5-153. When occupying a laager site for an extended period, the LRS team sets up an internal
communications net using wire. Use of wire reduces foot movement and radio communications. The team
can also use secure FM, with frequency hopping on low power, communications between vehicles or
between mounted and dismounted elements. Such communications will decrease the range of the radio
systems used, but will hinder the enemy’s ability to detect and direction find the team.
5-46
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
Camouflage
5-154. Mounted LRS teams operating behind enemy lines need to stay undetected to complete the
mission. In an unsupported role in a desert environment, a key to remaining undetected is to use proper
camouflage measures. The team’s ability to hide in the desert is limited only by the imagination and
resourcefulness of its members (Figure 5-19).
Figure 5-19. Multiple camouflaged HMMWVs.
Camouflage Theory
5-155. The biggest threat to the team is detection. Detection can be by—
Direct Observation--Where the observer sees the subject with his eyes, either aided or unaided.
Indirect Observation--Where the observer sees an image of the subject and not the subject itself.
Indirect observation uses photography, radar, infrared, thermal imaging, and televideo.
FM 3-55.93
5-47
Chapter 5
Factors of Recognition
5-156. Regardless of the method of observation, certain factors help the eye and brain identify an object.
The six factors of recognition are—
Position—This factor relates to the position of the object in relation to its surroundings. In
addition, position is space relative to one object and another.
Shape—Experience teaches people to associate an object with its shape or outline. At a distance,
the outline of objects can be recognized long before the details of its makeup can be
Trucks, guns, tanks, and other common military items all have distinctive outlines that help to
identify them.
Shadow—Shadow may be even more revealing than the object itself. This fact is true when
viewed from the air. Sometimes it may be more important to break up or disrupt the shadow
than the object itself.
Texture—Texture refers to the ability of an object to reflect, absorb, and diffuse light. It may be
defined as the relative smoothness or roughness of a surface. A rough surface reflects little light
and will usually appear dark to the eye or in a photo. A smooth surface such as an airstrip,
although it might be painted the same color as its surroundings, would show up as a lighter tone
on a photo. One of the most revealing breaches of camouflage discipline is shine. Shine attracts
attention by reflecting light such as sunlight or moonlight.
Contrast—Color is an aid to an observer when there is a contrast between the object and its
background. The greater the contrast in color, the more visible the object is. Usually darker
shades of a given color will be less likely to attract an observer’s attention than the lighter
shades.
Movement—The last factor of recognition is movement. Although this factor seldom reveals the
identity of an object, it is the most important one of revealing location. Movement is detected
easily and usually through the observer’s peripheral vision.
Concealment of Objects
5-157. Hiding is the concealment of an object by some form of physical screen.
Hiding—Using thick vegetation or terrain features that screen vehicles from ground observation.
In some cases, the screen itself can be invisible to detection and, at times, it is the overt screen
that protects the activity or equipment from observation.
Blending—Arranging or applying of camouflage materials on, over, or around an object so that it
appears to be part of the background. Blending distinctly man-made objects into a natural
terrain pattern is necessary to maintain a normal and natural appearance.
Disguising—Simulating an object or activity so that it looks like something else. Clever disguises
will mislead the enemy as to identity, strength, and intention.
Camouflage in the Desert
5-158. Camouflage challenges encountered in the desert require special attention to overcome. The lack
of natural overhead cover, the increased range of vision, and the bright tones of terrain all require emphasis
on siting, dispersion, and camouflage discipline to achieve concealment. Cast shadows are notably
conspicuous. Deserts generally have large areas of sand, little tall vegetation, brilliant sunlight, and extreme
temperatures. Rocky areas, steep wadis, and washes characterize desert environments. The density of
vegetation coverage is often as high as 80 percent. Most of the vegetation is low, averaging about 30 inches
high in flat areas, while in the wadis and at higher elevations, it can average close to 10 feet. When viewed
from the air, the desert floor appears spotted or pockmarked in many areas. Vegetation commonly found in
the desert includes colors ranging from pale yellow to dark gray and dark brown. Although green and
are the principal colors of most desert vegetation, it is important to study the target area vegetation and
terrain to formulate a proper vehicle camouflage plan. No one camouflage system or pattern will work for
every desert or even different parts of the same desert. Only with detailed planning can a mounted
detachment plan for and prepare the materials necessary to properly conceal their vehicles.
5-48
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
Further Camouflage Considerations
5-159. In preparing for desert operations, position selection, reflection reduction, and concealment are
conditions the team must consider--
Position Selection
5-160. Site or position selection is of critical importance in any environment but particularly so in the
desert. Site positions that fit into the existing ground pattern with minimum alteration to the terrain are
ideal. The sites selected should suppress ground observation. Some areas such as valley floors might have
sparse vegetation, but adjacent wadis could offer thicker vegetation with opportunities for defilade and
enhanced potential for concealment from aerial threats. Day laagers should not be areas that would be
obvious to enemy patrols. The team leader usually positions the vehicles to provide 360-degree security
and good concealment, and to allow rapid egress from the position.
Reflection Reduction
5-161. Reducing surfaces that reflect light is a measure that starts in garrison before deployment. It
involves removing mirrors and covering headlights and taillights. The windshield can be left on so that it
provides protection from blowing sand, dust, and rocks thrown up by the vehicle in front. The other option
is to remove the glass and have team members use eye protection. The windshield frame should not be
removed because it provides rollover protection. Team members cover all reflective surfaces with a
close-weaved, non-see-through cloth such as canvas or target cloth. They leave a sight portal open for
driving. If cloth or other material is unavailable, they mix water and dirt to get mud, and apply it to the
reflective surfaces.
Concealment
5-162. Usually the best way to conceal vehicles is with nets. Ideally, use the Lightweight Camouflage
Screening System (LWCSS) in the desert. These nets provide concealment from visual, near infrared,
radar, and target-acquisition devices. This net is not intended as a complete camouflage system as it
depends on imitation of the ground surface, both in color and texture, to be effective. In some deserts, the
woodland pattern would blend in better. Alternatives to using the LWCSS are--
• Use open-weaved cloth with color patches to match the terrain in the operational area. This type
of net might be the best choice in an area consisting mostly of sand dunes.
• Garnish a large fishing net with burlap to suit the color of the operational area.
• Add vegetation to this net to enhance concealment.
5-163. In open areas, drape the net over the vehicle and slope the sides gradually to the ground. Break up
the outline of the vehicle by placing props or poles underneath, and then intertwine vegetation into the net.
Eliminate shadows caused by the vehicle or net. In broken country, use the drape to tie the net to some
irregularity in the terrain such as next to a mesquite or brush mound. Break up the outline and eliminate
shadows. After placing the net, cut and place brush into the net to add realism, texture, and similarity to the
terrain and to help break up the outline.
Maintenance and Recovery
5-164. Preventive maintenance is critical to being able to execute mounted operations. Long supply lines
and minimum stocks on hand will increase the time needed to get vital replacement items and repair parts.
Proper maintenance must be performed on equipment throughout the whole spectrum of service, that is,
before, during, and after operations.
FM 3-55.93
5-49
Chapter 5
Organization
5-165. R&S squadron units conduct operator level maintenance as with any other unit. Organization level
maintenance is provided by the BSC. The R&S squadron receives organizational support from a
maintenance team provided by the BSC. The LRSC also receives support from this BSC maintenance
team. As a result, it is highly unlikely a LRS team conducting a mounted mission will be accompanied by a
mechanic from the BSC. Therefore, the mounted LRS team should prepare itself to handle all operator and
unit maintenance during a mission. In addition, some depot-level knowledge may be necessary. Team
members regularly attend maintenance courses for the mobility platforms the unit uses.
Preventive Maintenance Checks and Services
5-166. The vehicles assigned to a mounted LRS team must be properly maintained and serviced. Its
members must perform routine PMCS on their vehicles before, during, and after all operations. The
vehicles also require regular operation. The team must perform post-operations maintenance procedures
immediately after the conclusion of each mission.
Desert Environmental Effects
5-167. Several factors affect mounted operations in a desert environment:
Rough Terrain
5-168. Severe terrain consisting of rough, uneven ground, steep mountains, and loose sand and rocks will
cause vibrations and result in the loosening of nuts, bolts, fuel, and hydraulic lines. It could also disrupt
electrical components. Rough terrain can severely affect tires, wheels, transmissions, and suspension
systems. Therefore, frequent inspections are necessary to ensure vehicles function properly and to prevent
long downtime due to repairs.
Sand and Dust
5-169. The abrasive effects of sand and dust adversely affect equipment. Any moving part faces the
probability of being damaged or impaired by sand or dust. Brakes, recoil systems, bearings, hydraulics, and
relays are all susceptible to incapacitation by sand or dust. Also sand and dust mixed with lubricants turns
into an abrasive paste that can easily wear and score moving parts. Cover equipment when not in use.
Frequent preventive maintenance will help to alleviate these problems to a manageable degree.
Heat and Low Humidity
5-170. Surface temperatures can reach 140 degrees and reflect heat under and into vehicles. Surface
temperatures heat parts and accessories making them untouchable without protection. Such intense heat
coupled with low humidity can overheat the vehicles and batteries, and can degrade the seals and tires.
Frequent inspections, protection with covers, and regular maintenance can aid in reducing the effects of
these environmental factors.
Vegetation
5-171. In some deserts, thorny and spiny plants pose a serious problem for tires, and can puncture
hoses. Use of proper individual driving techniques is the first preventive measure for stopping flats.
5-50
FM 3-55.93
Insertion and Extraction Methods
Section IV. OTHE R OPE R ATIONS
The team can also be inserted by other means such as by airborne operations, stay-behind operations, and
foot operations.
AIRBORNE OPERATIONS
5-172. Air insertion is the fastest way to infiltrate. LRS teams and equipment may insert by parachute, by
static line, or by free-fall techniques.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
5-173. Units must plan—
• To coordinate for the suppression of enemy air defenses along the infiltration corridor.
• To determine whether enemy air defense artillery lies within artillery or naval gunfire range.
• To coordinate with the transporting unit.
• To consider and prepare for in-flight emergencies.
• To use an adverse weather aerial-delivery system during limited visibility or adverse weather.
• To dispose of parachutes, once assembled.
• Lost or dead Soldier.
LANDING PLAN
5-174. Leaders plan the operation using reverse planning. The ground tactical plan drives the other plans.
The landing plan includes—
• Place of delivery.
• Time of delivery.
• Assembly area.
• Method of delivery (type of parachutes).
• Sequence of delivery. Team may be transported on an aircraft with personnel dropping on a
different DZ.
• Load in order of the sequence of drops.
• Door bundles.
AIR MOVEMENT PLAN
5-175. The air movement plan includes the manifest, load plan, flight routes, in-flight checkpoints, flight
times, load time, station time, takeoff time, and time on target.
MARSHALING PLAN
5-176. The jumpmaster gives his briefings. The team conducts sustained airborne training. Leaders plan
all joint tactical operations and support. The LRS team, equipment, and supplies are moved to departure
airfield. Leader must know the answers to the following questions:
• Aircraft location.
• Transportation to the airfield.
• Linkup point for transportation.
• No later than team arrival time at a specified location.
FM 3-55.93
5-51
Chapter 5
STAY-BEHIND OPERATIONS
5-177. The stay-behind team lets the enemy bypass so they can perform a specific mission behind
enemy lines.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
5-178. When friendly forces expect an enemy offensive and friendly defensive operations, or when
friendly forces are conducting limited offensive or reconnaissance operations, a stay-behind operation
might offer the best way for a LRS team to infiltrate. In both cases, the forward friendly unit escorts the
LRS team to the AO and provides security during site preparation.
SITE PREPARATION
5-179. Because the enemy is expected to overrun and occupy the LRS team's AO, they must prepare a
good subsurface site. The team can stock enough supplies to operate for an extended period in a subsurface
hide site. Engineer support is highly desirable in the construction of such a site (Appendix J).
FOOT MOVEMENT OPERATIONS
5-180. When traveling on foot, the LRS team departs as usual from a secure area. The team can move on
foot alone, or can combine foot and vehicle movement. They normally move during limited visibility. They
always depart from a secure area. To prevent enemy detection, they travel over rugged terrain normally not
occupied by enemy forces.
PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
5-181. Route planning requires extensive intelligence on enemy unit locations. The team needs fire
support during movement.
INTELLIGENCE
5-182. Ground surveillance radar (GSR) can help them avoid enemy units, and radar-detection systems
alert them when the enemy uses it. Tactical communication-intercept systems can warn them of actual
enemy along the infiltration route.
SUPPLIES
5-183. The team can only carry enough supplies to move short distances for short periods of time,
normally not more than a few days. Because the team's supplies may be depleted once they arrive at the
AO, the parent unit must place a priority on resupply.
5-52
FM 3-55.93
Chapter 6
Communications
This chapter discusses the networks
(Section I), operations
(Section II), radios,
computers and base radio station (Section III), reports (Section V), electronic warfare
(Section VI), antennas (Section VII) and operational environments (Section VIII),
LRSU use to send and receive near real-time information. It also discusses
communications in electronic warfare
(Section IV) and unusual environments
(Section VII).
Section I. NE TWOR K S
The LRSC must use several communications networks simultaneously. For example, the COB communicates
internally, to the AOB, to higher, and to deployed teams. The AOB maintains nets to the deployed teams and
the COB, and must be ready to communicate with the R&S squadron S-2, BFSB S-2, G-2, or J-2, if needed.
The LRSC maintains an internal communications net with deployed teams. The deployed team must maintain a
net to higher echelons and a team internal net.
ARCHITECTURE AND FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
6-1.
The LRSU have sophisticated and powerful communications equipment. They must also have
access to multiple frequencies in multiple spectrums. Both are needed for the LRSU to send and receive
near-real time information over many types of digital and analog systems.
ARCHITECTURE MANAGEMENT
6-2.
The LRSU will need frequencies in the HF, VHF and UHF spectrums. Current communications
systems operate in all three spectrums. The LRSU need multiple high frequencies for HF radio systems
ever changing optimum frequency of transmission (FOT) as well as multiple channel assignments for
automatic link-establishment (ALE) radios.
FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT
6-3.
Such complex communications require extensive frequency management. The BFSB S-6 is
responsible for requesting frequencies with the JTF, corps or division G-6 to ensure that the unit is
allocated a sufficient amount and type of frequencies to accomplish the mission The R&S squadron S-6
and the LRSC signal platoon leader submit all frequency requests thru the BFSB S-6.
FM 3-55.93
6-1
Chapter 6
OPERATIONS BASES
6-4.
Three primary networks and two backup networks are normally established for communications
between operating bases:
PRIMARY
6-5.
This includes--
• Internal wire net with tactical switching system (landline telephone).
• Tactical local area networks (LAN) for communication by computer or voice over internet
protocol (VoIP) phones.
• Combat net radios (single channel ground and airborne radio system (SINCGARS)) and
AN/PRC-148.
BACKUP
6-6.
This includes--
• HF radio.
• UHF tactical satellite radios.
• Secure cellular/satellite phones.
TEAMS
6-7.
For internal communications, the LRS teams use secure LOS combat net radio systems. Secure,
handheld, lightweight radios like the multipurpose and multiband inter/intra team radio
(MBITR)
incorporate frequency hopping
(FH) and embedded communications security
(COMSEC) that are
compatible with the SINCGARS. These radios also allow communications with other Army and joint
elements, including aircraft, and thus are ideally suited to LRS operations.
Section II. R ADIOS , COMPUTE R S , AND THE B AS E R ADIO S TATION
R&S units that see everything and cannot report what they see are a wasted resource. The ability to
communicate is the life blood of LRSU, and radios are the heart that make this possible. LRSU must be experts
in the use of multiple radios systems and in the three primary military radio frequency spectrums: high
frequency (HF), very high frequency (VHF), and ultra high frequency (UHF). LRS Soldiers must be highly
proficient in programming, troubleshooting, and maintaining many types of radios.
ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS
6-8.
Successful communications depend on—
• The type of emission.
• The amount of transmitter power output.
• The characteristics of the transmitter antenna.
• The amount of propagation path loss.
• The characteristics of the receiving antenna.
• The amount of noise received.
• The relative sensitivity and selectivity of the receiver.
• An approved list of usable frequencies within a selected frequency range.
6-2
FM 3-55.93
Communications
HF, VHF, AND UHF RADIOS
6-9.
These three radio wave spectrums combine to provide the primary and alternate means for LRSU
to effectively communicate on the battlefield.
HF RADIOS
6-10.
High frequency radios are harder to maintain than the commonly used LOS radios. However, they
provide an unbeatable combination of reliability, economy, transportability, and versatility. Under ideal
conditions, a HF radio using only 20 watts of transmitter power can successfully communicate over
thousands of miles. Knowledgeable operators, backed by well-designed antennas and by propagation
predictions from a propagation-engineering service, are key to successful HF radio system performance.
Modern HF radios, such as the AN/PRC-138 and AN/PRC-150, incorporate the technologies of ALE, link
quality analysis (LQA), embedded COMSEC, and digital modems are ideal for LRSU operations. These
radios simplify HF communications and increase reliability and interoperability (Table 6-1).
Table 6-1. Radios that work with AN/PRC-150 in various security modes.
KY-57
HF
VHF
PT
CT
External
LOS
NLOS
AN/PRC-148 MBITR
X
X
X
X
AN/PRC-152
X
X
X
X
AN/PRC-119
X
X
X
X
SINCGARS
AN/PRC-117A/D/F
X
X
X
X
AN/PRC-113
X
X
X
X
X
X
AN/PRC-138
X
X
X
X
AN/PRC-112A/C
X
X
X
MX-300B6/B12
X
X
X
X
TR720A/B/C
X
X
X
Saber 5/G6
X
X
X
X
PSC-5C/D
X
X
X
X
X
LST-5C
X
X
X
X
VHF RADIOS
6-11.
These are generally simple to use and provide reliable and clear, short-range tactical
communications. The SINCGARS series of radios provide tactical units excellent communications that is
easy to secure from enemy eavesdropping.
UHF RADIOS
6-12.
These provide reliable tactical (LOS), operational, and strategic communications. However, due to
the high demand and to potential interoperability problems with other units, it is not always practical for
LRSU to use this spectrum.
FM 3-55.93
6-3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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