HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE (2018)

11a

HOVERING

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Ground Effect

Regaining the hover from movement in any direction

requires two attitude changes: one to stop the movement,

Tail Rotor Drift/Roll

and a second to stabilise the helicopter.

Flight guide performance charts:

All cyclic movements should be small. Cyclic trim should be

• Hover in-ground effect

employed, if applicable.

• Hover out-of-ground effect

Collective

•

HV Graph - Risks Associated

Point out the following:

• Over-pitching- Rotor Stall

The collective controls the height above ground.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Changes in collective pitch will produce yaw and RPM

changes unless prevented.

Aim

For the student to learn how to hover IGE.

Throttle

Review

Where appropriate to type, describe the use of the throttle

to maintain RPM.

Exercise 4 - Effects of Controls

When an in-flight low RPM condition exists, explain that if

Motivation

the condition is allowed to deteriorate to a dangerously low

It is essential to helicopter operations to be able to hover a

RPM, Rotor Stall can occur with severe or fatal

helicopter holding a given position relative to the ground,

consequences. Explain that immediately the throttle must

maintaining a constant height and heading as a prerequisite

be increased and simultaneously the collective lowered, as

to a safe landing.

appropriate, to recover from the low RPM condition.

Emphasize the importance of avoidance and early

Airmanship / TEM

recognition (via: engine noise, warning horn or light) of a low

•

Lookout

RPM condition.

•

Engine limitations

Pedals

Wind speed and direction

•

Point out that the pedals control heading.

Downwash

•

Describe the effects of pedal control movements on

Tail rotor clearance

•

heading and RPM.

Describe the visual cues used to maintain the hover, and

Teaching Points

stress the importance of looking well ahead of the

The hover

helicopter.

Define hovering as maintaining a constant height and

heading over a given ground position.

State the hover height, as appropriate to type.

Explain that facing into the wind results in the helicopter

being easier to control and uses less power.

Explain the effects of controls at the hover.

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Cyclic

Point out the following:

•

Tenseness on the controls, particularly the pedals.

The cyclic controls the disc attitude which in turn controls

the helicopter’s position over the ground. A change of disc

attitude is followed by a change in fuselage attitude. This

results in the helicopter moving over the ground. In some

types of helicopter there is an appreciable lag in this chain of

events.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 88

AIR EXERCISE

Demonstrate the use of the cyclic at the hover into wind.

Student practice with the cyclic only, until a hover can be

maintained without excessive effort.

Demonstrate the use of the collective.

Student practice.

Demonstrate the use of the pedals.

Student practice.

Student practice using all controls.

Demonstrate the differences in power required to hover in and

out of the wind, with the ground effect, and over different types

of surface (e.g. tarmac, long grass).

Demonstrate gentle forward running touchdown.

Demonstrate down wash and explain specific hazards for

example snow, dust and litter.

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

This exercise demands a high degree of coordination and

should not be taught until the student has acquired a

reasonable state of competence in Exercises 1 to 6. Introducing

it earlier than this could lead to frustration and undue fatigue for

both student and instructor.

An alternative technique is to use slow flight to introduce

hovering. This procedure takes the form of low, slow flight into

the wind across a suitable clear area. Speed and height are

progressively reduced in successive passes until the helicopter

is creeping forward at a walking pace in ground effect and is

then momentarily halted before transitioning into forward flight

again. These momentary pauses are in fact periods of hovering,

however brief, and are gradually extended as competency

improves, until prolonged periods of hovering are achieved.

This procedure is outlined in Exercise 13.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Whichever technique for teaching the hover is used, the

student will generally tend to tire quickly. Air exercises should

Exercise 11a: Hovering:

be kept short and terminated as soon as the first signs of fatigue

(A) demonstrate hover IGE, importance of wind effect

appear.

and attitude, ground cushion, stability in the hover

Initially the student may not be able to use more than one

and effects of over controlling;

control at a time, and it may even be necessary to limit the travel

(B) student holding cyclic stick only;

of that control.

Allow frequent rest periods to enable the student to relax, and

only;

try to practise other exercises or perform other demonstrations

(D) student handling collective lever, (throttle) and

to give the student a break from hovering.

pedals;

Keep a close watch on the temperatures, pressures and wind

(E) student handling all controls;

velocity during prolonged hovering.

(F) demonstration of ground effect;

(G) demonstration of wind effect;

(H) demonstrate gentle forward running touchdown;

(I) specific hazards for example snow, dust and litter.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 89

11b

HOVER TAXIING AND SPOT TURNS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Flight guide: Performance charts

No turns or any movements from the hover should be

initiated until the helicopter is settled in an accurate hover at

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

the required RPM and power setting.

Aim

The continuous use of high power in this exercise means

that a careful watch should be kept on engine temperatures

For the student to learn how to:

and pressures. Prolonged hovering out of the wind should

• turn at the hover

be avoided on some types of helicopter because of the

• hover-taxi.

dangers from carbon monoxide in the cockpit.

• perform a gentle forward running landing.

In some helicopters at certain C of G configurations (i.e. high

cabin loading) it is possible to reach the aft cyclic limits

• maintaining height and heading.

when hovering downwind. Warn the student of this

Review

possibility and describe the safe recovery actions when:

Exercise 11a: Hovering

• turning into the wind

Motivation

• landing straight ahead

Manoeuvring close to the ground and obstacles is necessary to

• Hover-taxiing

position the helicopter on the airfield ready to transition and to

return to the parking area after landing. It is also necessary to

State the height and ground speed to be used, and relate

complete a lookout turn before take off and moving off in any

them to the safety considerations.

direction.

Describe the effects of the controls.

Airmanship / TEM

Describe technique for gentle forward running landing.

• Lookout: obstacles

AIR EXERCISE

• Helicopter limitations

Hovering turns

Teaching Points

Demonstrate 360° hovering turns in each direction,

Turn at the hover

commencing into the wind and pausing at each 90° point.

Describe the techniques for making hovering turns, and

Student practice

stress the following points:

Hover-taxi

The effects of weathercocking must be taken into

Demonstrate hover-taxiing into the wind.

account.

Student practice

There can be problems with yaw control and a need for

Demonstrate hover-taxiing out of the wind.

increased power when the helicopter is downwind, or

crosswind, in strong wind conditions.

Student practice

Lookout is important during all hovering manoeuvres and,

Running Landing

in particular, for low obstacles that are hard to see and

Demonstrate gentle running landing.

that can snag the landing gear or tail rotor.

Student practice.

In strong or gusty wind conditions, a turn away from into the

wind should be in the opposite direction to the torque

reaction (i.e. to the left in a helicopter with a counter-clock

Common

turning rotor). In this way it is possible to ensure that there is

Errors

COMMON ERRORS

sufficient tail rotor control available. If control limits are

reached at this stage, a safe return to into-wind is easily

• Inability to recognise attitude changes until the aircraft

accomplished.

moves.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 90

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Dual instruction in this exercise should be carried out in a wide

range of wind conditions. This will prevent the situation arising

where the dual instruction is given on a calm day and the

student meets the problems of strong winds when solo on

another.

Pausing at each cardinal point enables the instructor to point out

the different cyclic positions into the wind. When the student is

competent, complete the 360° turn without pause.

Whenever possible, when hover-taxiing, keep the skids parallel

to the helicopter movement in case of engine failure or the

need to run the helicopter on to the ground in an aft C of G

condition.

Turns around the tail are covered separately in Exercise 17.

Sometimes the student will use cyclic instead of pedal to help

turn the helicopter, particularly in strong winds. This should be

avoided.

When the student is proficient at the basics, introduce some

hover patterns requiring taxiing and pedal turns.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 11b: Hover taxiing and spot turns:

(A) revise hovering;

(B) precise ground speed and height control;

control margin;

(D) control and co-ordination during spot turns;

(E) carefully introduce gentle forward running

touchdown.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 91

11c

HOVERING AND TAXIING EMERGENCIES

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

AIR EXERCISE

Flight guide: Height velocity chart, overpitching, emergency

Engine failure in the hover

procedures.

Demonstrate into wind as follows:

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Give a verbal warning.

Close the throttle.

Aim

Counteract yaw and drift.

For the student to learn how to land safely following an engine

failure/hydraulic failure (where appropriate) at the hover or

Cushion the landing.

hover-taxi and recognise over-pitching in order to take the

Student practice

corrective action.

Engine failure at the hover taxi

Review

Demonstrate into the wind.

Exercise 11a & 11b: Hovering/Hover taxi and spot turns

Student practice.

Exercise 12: Take-off and landing (when covered)

Motivation

Hydraulic failure in the hover/hover taxi

Malfunctions, whilst very rare can happen in the hover/hover

Demonstrate into wind as follows:

taxi and because of the proximity to the ground, swift corrective

Give verbal warning

action is required to minimise damage.

Turn off hydraulics

Airmanship / TEM

Carry out landing in accordance with flight guide

• Selection of a suitable area for practice

Student practice as appropriate

• Wind speed and direction

Over-pitching

Teaching Points

Use technique as appropriate to aircraft type

Point out that at normal hover or hover-taxi heights, it will not be

Student practice.

possible for the pilot to enter autorotation. In fact, lowering the

collective following an engine failure will result in a heavy

landing. This manoeuvre should not be considered an

autorotation; the pilot relies on the inertia in the rotor system to

land safely.

Describe the reaction of the helicopter when the engine fails:

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

•

yaw

•

drift

• Failure to distinguish between drift and yaw.

•

sink.

•

Visual reference on the ground immediately in front of the

Explain that the yaw and drift must be corrected before

aircraft.

touchdown. Sink should be controlled by use of the collective,

•

Yawing out of wind.

as appropriate to the type of helicopter and the height above

ground, to cushion the landing.

•

Over controlling of the controls causing Pilot Induced

Oscillations.

Explain that should engine failure occur at the hover-taxi, the

pilot should avoid any rearward movement of the cyclic and

•

Never allow the student to remove hands from controls in

accept a run-on landing.

the hover without positive change over of control.

•

The Student will, initially, find hovering extremely fatiguing

and will need regular rest to prevent loss in ability.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 92

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

This exercise should be introduced by providing the student

with plenty of warning before each practice. The manoeuvre

can then be speeded-up to flight test standards where the

student is given minimal warning of the practice engine failure.

Closing the throttle and cushioning the landing with the

collective takes a good deal of guide dexterity in most

helicopters. Since the aim of this exercise is for students to

react to an engine failure, there is little point in their learning

throttle control. In other words, the instructor should control the

throttle.

Tail-rotor failure at the hover or hover-taxi, which does require

coordinated use of the throttle and collective by the student,

should be practised at a later stage in training.

Always ensure that the surface is suitable for this exercise,

This is a good exercise to demonstrate to the student the

landing stage of an autorotation. It is a good skill to practise just

before starting a full-on autorotation exercise.

Exercise caution, as the student may react to the simulated

engine failure by rapidly lowering the collective. Be sure to give

a verbal warning before closing the throttle.

Over-pitching can best be demonstrated at maximum all up

mass.

Hydraulic failures/de-selection at low speeds can result in

strong and rapid feedback forces especially in helicopters

without hydraulic accumulators. Often the hydraulic switch is

located only on the pilot’s side and therefore consideration

needs to be given as to how the instructor covers the controls

while the hydraulics are de-selected.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 11c: Hovering and taxiing emergencies:

(A) revise hovering and gentle forward running

touchdown, explain (demonstrate where applicable)

effect of hydraulics failure in the hover;

(B) demonstrate simulated engine failure in the hover

and hover taxi;

pitching.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 93

TAKE-OFF AND LANDING

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

• Knowledge of the preconditions of over-pitchingand

low RPM

Dynamic rollover

• Recognition of the symptoms for low RPM

Ground resonance

• Skill in applying the appropriate recovery technique

Flight guide: checks

Describe the symptoms of incipient dynamic rollover, avoidance

Over- pitching - Rotor Stall

and recovery action:

• Landing

PREPARATORY

Describe the procedure for landing from the hover into wind, as

Aim

appropriate to type and including:

For the student to learn how to take off to, and land from, the

the need to start the manoeuvre from a stable and accurate

hover into wind, cross wind and down wind.

hover

Review

the effects of controls during landing from the hover:

Exercise 11a Hovering

• use the cyclic to maintain position. Stress the need to

avoid sideways or rearwards drift.

Exercise 11b Hover Taxiing and Spot Turns

• use the collective to control the rate of descent

Exercise 11c Hovering and Taxiing Emergencies

• use the pedals to prevent yaw.

Motivation

Point out the need to anticipate the increase in ground effect

Full and accurate control of the helicopter in the take-off and

during a landing in light or nil wind conditions.

landing phase is vital to flight safety.

Point out the need to anticipate ground resonance, if applicable

Airmanship / TEM

to type.

•

Lookout

• Engine consideration

Common

•

Pre-takeoff /after take off/pre-landing checks

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

•

Wind speed and direction

Teaching Points

LANDING:

Take-off

•

Over controlling on cyclic and collective lever during latter

stages of descent.

Describe the procedures for take-off to the hover into wind,

as appropriate to type, and including:

•

Failure to appreciate attitude changes, looking downwards.

pre-take-off checks

•

Pulling back or pushing forward on cyclic after touchdown.

effects of controls during take-off:

•

Failure to lower collective lever fully after touchdown.

cyclic to maintain position over the ground

•

Attempting to land with an unstable hover.

collective to gain height

TAKE-OFF:

pedals to prevent yaw.

•

Failure to appreciate attitude changes and the need for

corrections.

Hover check as appropriate to type, but including:

centre-of-gravity check

•

Slowness in correcting yaw.

•

Incorrect use of the collective lever and throttle resulting in

power required to hover

a rapid climb out of the ground cushion, over speeding and

control response normal.

over pitching.

Point out the dangers of over-pitching- leading to low Rotor

• Failure to ensure correct control position before initiating

RPM and Rotor Stall. As appropriate to the type, describe the

take-off.

avoidance and recovery actions, including:

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 94

AIR EXERCISE

Demonstrate the take-off to the hover into wind.

Demonstrate hover into wind check.

Student practice

Demonstrate landing from the hover into wind.

Demonstrate take off and landings cross wind and down wind

Student practice

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Do not teach this exercise unless the student can consistently

maintain a steady hover.

It is essential that horizontal and yawing movements are

corrected before a landing is made. Should movement in either

plane exist whilst descending to land the student should be

made to immediately abandon the landing and return to hover by

raising the collective smoothly enough to return to safe hover

height. Once in the hover a conscious effort to relax the student

should be made before a further attempt.

Ensure students keep looking at their reference points in front of

the helicopter and not down at the ground.

Monitor the collective closely on the initial attempts to land so as

to guard against sudden and excessive movements. Ensure

once landing is achieved, the collective is smoothly lowered full-

down.

It is generally an advantage to strive for smoothness and

accuracy before speed during these manoeuvres.

Student technique should nonetheless be developed to the

point where contact with the ground is made and broken cleanly,

particularly in helicopters prone to ground resonance.

When the student is working smoothly and accurately, introduce

lifting from the ‘skids light’ condition to a low hover before going

to normal hover height to preclude dynamic rollover.

Be aware that, when getting close to the surface, some

students try to ‘feel’ the ground by rocking the cyclic laterally.

As with hovering, this exercise is very tiring; break it up by

practising other exercises when necessary.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 12: Take-off and landing:

(A) pre-take-off checks or drills;

(B) look-out;

(D) after take-off checks;

(E) danger of horizontal movement near ground;

(F) danger of mishandling and overpitching;

(G) landing (without sideways or backwards

movement);

(H) after landing checks or drills;

(I) take-off and landing crosswind and downwind.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 95

TRANSITIONS FROM HOVER TO CLIMB

AND APPROACH TO HOVER

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Note: Transitions can be taught in conjunction with the lesson

Complete pre-take off checks

on circuits unless a student displays problems with the

Establish a steady hover into wind

concepts associated with the transition.

Complete after take off checks

Ground effect

Establish a steady hover into wind.

Translational lift

Make a lookout turn and check that the area is clear.

Dissymmetry of lift and flap back

Select an outside reference to help in directional control,

Tail rotor drift

and ease the cyclic forward slightly to initiate movement.

Vortex ring

Apply lateral cyclic to overcome inflow roll effect.

Flight guide:

At the same time, if required, adjust power sufficiently to

maintain height as ground effect is lost and translational

Height velocity chart

lift is acquired.

Climb and descent power

Apply enough forward cyclic to overcome flap-back.

Airspeed settings

Select the climb attitude and power.

PREPARATION INSTRUCTION

Prevent yaw throughout and adjust the attitude as

required to maintain the climb attitude.

Aim

The aim is for the student to learn how to:

Transition from forward flight to the hover (standard

•

conduct a look out turn

approach)

•

transition from the hover to the climb

Explain that the transition to the hover involves two

separate requirements that have to be combined into one

transition to the hover from the descent

•

coordinated manoeuvre:

demonstrate a variable flare simulated engine off landing.

•

Height reduction

Height must be reduced from the approach altitude to the

Review

hover height above ground. Explain the constant angle

approach, describing the visual indications.

Straight and level flight, climbs and descents, hovering and

autorotations.

Motivation

Common

COMMON ERRORS

The term transition covers all flight to and from the hover. The

Errors

constant angle approach is particularly important as it is used in

circuits and future advanced exercises.

Failure to correct yaw with power changes.

•

Airmanship / TEM

Applying too much power during transition to climb, over

•

pitching.

• Lookout including the lookout turn

Failure to anticipate loss of Translational Lift when

•

• Wind velocity

approaching hover.

• Checks

•

Incorrect judgement of apparent groundspeed and closing

Teaching Points

angle.

Transition to the climb

•

Incorrect use of cyclic and collective lever during approach

Describe the transition from the hover to the climb as

to hover.

follows:

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 96

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Speed reduction: Speed must be progressively reduced

from the approach airspeed to a zero groundspeed at the

The concept of making an approach at a constant angle and at a

hover. Varying approach angles and/or wind conditions will

progressively decreasing ground speed can be a difficult one

cause the airspeed to vary a great deal from one approach to

for the student pilot to grasp. The use of perspective diagrams

another. It is vital, therefore, that the student learns to refer

in pre-flight briefing is essential.

to groundspeed only.

The instructor should be prepared for the fact that, in the early

Describe the procedure as follows:

stages, the student will almost certainly fail to anticipate the

Approach the landing spot into the wind at a specific altitude

amount of power required when translational lift is lost coming

and airspeed.

to the hover. This will often lead to undershooting.

Select a constant approach angle (sight picture).

Another problem resulting from this is underestimation of the

Initiate the approach by reducing power and commencing a

pedal requirements. Explain that the greater the power required

to establish the hover, the greater the pedal movement

progressive decrease in airspeed.

required to keep the helicopter straight, and this can be

Maintain the constant approach angle with the collective.

corrected only by using an outside reference.

Establish the constant ground/closing speed (a fast walking

Emphasise the need to assess the approach in relation to the

pace), and maintain it with the cyclic.

groundspeed and sight picture. This can be accomplished only

Anticipate the loss of translational lift.

by looking outside the helicopter, with an occasional cross-

check of the instruments.

Establish a hover over the selected spot.

Ensure that the pedals are used to make the helicopter move

Prevent yaw or sideways drift.

straight with the direction of travel when close to the ground.

Describe the go-around (missed approach) procedures as

Students should be encouraged to go-around if the rate of

appropriate to type and local conditions.

descent is high and the airspeed is low.

Explain that wind velocity will significantly affect helicopter

performance and handling characteristics, as appropriate to

type.

AIR EXERCISE

Demonstrate inflow roll, flap-back and a transition from the

hover to the climb.

Student practice

Demonstrate a transition to the hover, showing the visual cues

of overshooting/undershooting the constant angle approach

and the actions required to re-establish the constant approach

angle and the correct rate of closure.

Student practice

Demonstrate the go-around procedures.

Student practice

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 13: Transitions from hover to climb and approach

to hover:

(A) look-out;

(B) revise take-off and landing;

(D) flapback and its effects;

(E) effect of wind speed and direction during transitions

from or to the hover;

(F) the constant angle approach;

(G) demonstration of variable flare simulated engine off

landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 98

14a

CIRCUIT, APPROACH AND LANDING

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

AIR EXERCISE

Local aerodrome procedures.

Demonstrate a circuit.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Student practice

When circumstances permit, demonstrate:

Aim

circuit spacing: speed and circuit size variations, and

For the student to learn how to fly an accurate circuit

Review

acceptance and/or compliance with Air Traffic Service

instructions and clearances.

All previous exercises as required.

Student practice

Motivation

When a reasonable standard has been reached in normal circuits;

Circuits remain an excellent way of consolidating all the previous

air exercises in one convenient sequence.

describe the application of Exercise 14c (Emergency

Procedures) to the various segments of the circuit, as

Airmanship / TEM

applicable to type and local conditions; and

Circuit patterns are used at aerodromes and field sites to ensure a

Demonstrate go rounds

safe separation of aircraft operating at an aerodrome and as an

exercise circuits remain an excellent way of consolidating all the

Student practice

previous air exercises in one convenient sequence.

Demonstrate emergencies in the circuit.

• Lookout

Student practice

• Checks

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTOR

• RT procedures

This exercise should be introduced when a reasonable level of

• Wind velocity

competence at transitions and the preceding exercises has

•

Spacial awareness and spacing with other traffic

been reached. Otherwise the result will be time-wasting and

hard on the student’s morale.

• Local noise abatement procedures

When flying in the circuit encourage the student to strive for

Teaching Points

perfection, but not to the detriment of look-out by concentrating

too much on the instruments.

With the aid of suitable visual aids, describe the circuit pattern to

be used, specifying directions, speeds, distances, heights, etc.

Impress upon your student to ‘go around’ rather than trying to

make a good approach from a poor one.

Where applicable, explain the use of the radio and the

significance of Air Traffic Service instructions and clearances.

Correct any persistent errors, but by this stage, students should

be self critical enough to recognise and remedy most faults

Where applicable, describe local procedures for joining and

themselves.

leaving the circuit including noise abatement considerations.

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

• Failure to look out in turns.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 100

14b

STEEP AND LIMITED POWER APPROACHES

AND LANDINGS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Flight guide:

Describe the technique for carrying out a zero

speedlanding, as follows:

Limitations

Approach the selected landing spot as required.

Load and density altitude performance charts

When the approach is almost completed, and

Vortex ring

groundspeed is close to zero, anticipate loss of

Over-pitching - Rotor Stall

translational lift by applying sufficient power to minimise

the rate of descent.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Let the helicopter sink gently through the cushion on to

Aim

the ground.

For the student to learn additional approach and landing

Point out that this type of landing requires recce prior

techniques for use under varying conditions

confirmation that the selected spot is suitable for landing.

Review

Running landing

Exercise 12: Take-off and Landing

Explain that this type of landing can be used in similar

Exercise 13: Transitions from Hover to Climb and Approach to

conditions as the zero speed landing. Although it is easier to

Hover

maintain directional stability and requires less power to

Motivation

perform because translation lift is maintained until landing

on a large, flat, smooth surface such as a runway is

Although the techniques learned in Exercises 7 and 11 are

essential.

those that should continue to be used under optimum

conditions, situations such as high all-up weight, high density

Describe the technique for carrying out a running landing, as

altitude, unfavourable wind conditions, limited power or

Approach the selected landing area as required.

obstacles close to the flight path may dictate the use of

advanced techniques.

As the approach is completed, run on at slow walking

pace.

•

Lookout: obstacles

Apply sufficient power to cushion the landing.

After landing, maintain the cyclic and collective positions

Helicopter limitations

•

until forward movement stops.

• Checks

Approaches

• Wind Velocity

Explain that in operational conditions it is sometimes

Vortex Ring

•

necessary to approach to land at an angle other than

•

Ground Effect

standard, as follows:

Teaching Points

Zero speed landing

Explain that this type of landing is useful in conditions where

Common

it is not desirable to approach or hover, such as in dust,

Errors

COMMON ERRORS

powdery snow or turbulence. It requires less power than a

normal approach to a hover.

• Failure to anticipate height to level off.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 102

Steep approach

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

This approach is for avoiding obstacles on the final approach

Introduce these techniques in a flat, clear training area ideally.

path. Point out that airspeed will be lower than normal and

This exercise should be flown in light wind conditions.

that more power will be required.

Limited power situations can be achieved by loading the

Always prepare for a zero speed landing.

helicopter or by limiting the amount of power the student is

allowed to use, as appropriate to type.

Stress the need to maintain reasonable airspeed for as long

as possible owing to the danger of a vortex ring state

Zero speed landings can, and should, be practised from any

occurring or of insufficient power to prevent a high sink rate

type of approach.

and a hard landing.

Point out the similarities of the running landing to an engine

Shallow approach

failure in the hover with regard to groundspeed and pedal

control.

Explain to the student that a shallow approach requires less

power than a standard or steep approach. It should be

Initially, when you are demonstrating steep approaches use

employed when the approach path is free from obstacles

an open area, preferably with a line of trees or bushes over

and where conditions limit the power available, or where

which you can shoot the approach. Ensure that the student can

maximum power is available but inadequate for the use of

see the intended landing spot over the trees.

standard techniques.

Stress that care should be taken to avoid making the

approach angle too shallow, i.e. flat. This requires more

power and can lead to problems in decelerating to a hover

because of the possibility of the tail striking the ground.

AIR EXERCISE

Review the standard approach to the hover into wind pointing

out changes in power required due to ground effect in the latter

stages. Note and compare the power required, after

demonstrating with the following techniques:

standard approach to a zero speed landing

standard approach to a run-on landing

steep approach to a zero speed landing

shallow approach to the hover

shallow approach to a zero speed landing.

Student practice

Demonstrate a flat approach (i.e. too shallow) and point out the

difference in power required.

Demonstrate a variable flare simulated EOL.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 14b: Steep and limited power approaches and

landings:

(A) revise the constant angle approach;

(B) the steep approach (explain danger of high sink rate

and low air speed)

speed at touch down);

(D) use of the ground effect;

(E) variable flare simulated engine off landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 103

14c

EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

Missed Approach and Go Around

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

The student will have had demonstrated the go-around

Flight guide

technique in Exercise 14a. However, it is important that the

student should be able to recognise the necessity for, and

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

procedure to be used for a missed approach, go around, and

Aim

climb back into the circuit, without prompting and un-

assisted. The Instructor should ensure that the student is

For the student to learn how to conduct:

monitoring the rate of descent, speed and power available

•

an abandoned take-off;

throughout the descent in order to identify a possible

•

a missed approach and go-around;

requirement for a go around at all stages of the approach.

•

a hydraulic off landing (if applicable);

Student practice of a go around with a Vy climb back into

•

a tail rotor control or tail rotor drive failure (briefing only)

the circuit including the completion of the appropriate

•

simulated emergencies in the circuit to include:

checks and radio calls, should be undertaken prior to solo

(a) hydraulics failure;

Simulated Emergencies in the Circuit / Hydraulic Landing

(b) simulated engine failure on take-off, crosswind,

If safe to do, the hydraulic failure demonstration should take

downwind and base leg;

place initially in flight at altitude, demonstrating how to

recover the aircraft to an appropriate safe flight condition

Review

before conducting the relevant flight guide procedures.

Exercise 10; Basic Autorotation

This can then be progressed to conduct the approach and

appropriate landing technique in accordance with the flight

Exercise11c; Hovering and Taxiing Emergencies

guide recommendations.

Exercise13; Transitions from Hover to Climb and Approach to

Hover

Simulated Engine Failure on crosswind, downwind, base and

finals

Exercise14a; Circuit approach and Landing

The techniques taught in Exercise 10 Basic Autorotation,

Motivation

should now be developed to demonstrate how to conduct

The ability to detect and manage a malfunction or emergency

simulated engine failures during the various stages of the

safely is essential before the student is permitted to conduct

circuit. It would be appropriate to also introduce the

his first solo flight.

students to elements of practice forced landings from Ex

21. The student should also have had demonstrated and

Airmanship / TEM

practised basic EOLs from Ex 19 prior to going solo. During

•

Lookout

the practice circuits the landing sites to be used in the case

•

Wind W/V

of an engine failure should be identified and PFLs practised

to those sites.

•

ATC calls

Vortex Ring

•

Checks

•

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Touch drills

Errors

•

Teaching Points

Incorrect technique when levelling off from climb.

•

Abandoned Take Off

Failure to appreciate drift when across wind.

•

The importance of conducting after take-off checks before

Failure to select the correct approach angle and failing to

•

transitioning from the hover should be stressed including

commence the descent immediately the correct approach

the necessity to immediately land back on the ground if an

angle is reached.

abnormality is detected.

Excessive rates of descent with low airspeed.

•

During the transition from the hover, if a malfunction or

emergency is detected, then if safe to do so, the climb

Undershooting the landing point.

•

should be stopped and a controlled descent, back to the

Incorrect hover height.

•

ground, into wind should be conducted. During practice/

Harsh use of controls and poor control.

demonstrations possible precautionary/emergency landing

•

sites should be identified on the climb out path.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 104

Governor Failure

When training the student for aircraft malfunctions it is

important to initially build confidence by demonstrating careful,

As appropriate to the aircraft type the student would in

safe de-selection of the appropriate systems to show the

Exercise 4 have had demonstrated the effects of the

relevant indications, handling effects and how to rectify/

governor. If safe to do, the governor failure demonstration

mitigate in a safe timely manner.

should take place initially in flight at altitude, demonstrating

how to recover the aircraft to an appropriate safe flight

Once this is satisfactorily achieved pilots must then learn how

condition before conducting the relevant flight guide

to identify a malfunction, diagnose and carry out the appropriate

procedures.

actions in accordance with the FM/POH. A useful procedure to

follow using an adaptation of the DODAR decision making cycle

This can then be progressed to conduct an approach and

is:

appropriate landing technique in accordance with the flight

guide recommendations. As part of the training the

Detect - a malfunction can be detected by any, or all of the

recognition of and recovery from low and high rotor rpm

senses, not only visually by a warning light or gauge

conditions should be demonstrated and practised.

indication. It could be aurally by a warning horn or noticing

unusual noises, it could be the smell of burning or feeling of

Tail Rotor Failure

a vibration through the controls.

Tail rotor failures at this stage are normally only a discussion

Obtain Information - once a possible malfunction is

with the instructor using the relevant flight guide to explain

detected then the pilot must use their CRM skills to gain all

the various tail rotor malfunctions and the appropriate

relevant information by cross checking for other aircraft

techniques to be employed. Later in the syllabus, when the

indications, using crew members, passengers, ground

student handling skills have been developed, it may be

observers, ATC, etc to gain as much information as possible

possible to fly the appropriate tail rotor failure/malfunction

before continuing on to the next stage.

recovery techniques.

Decide - once all the information is collated and the

diagnosis is complete, a decision can then be made as to

__ AIR EXERCISE

the most appropriate course of action.

Demonstrate abandoned take-off.

Act - take the appropriate action in accordance with the

Student practice

FM/POH/flight reference cards emergency procedures.

Demonstrate missed approach and go-around.

Review - if time permits review the above stages and

Student practice

adapt/modify as necessary to ensure a safe outcome.

Demonstrate simulated emergencies in the circuit.

The time taken to complete the above sequence will be

Student practice

dictated by the degree of urgency of the malfunction i.e. an

engine failure in a single engine helicopter will require it to be

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

completed in seconds, whereas a non critical malfunction such

as a generator failure could be reasonably dealt with in minutes.

Prior to teaching aircraft malfunctions and emergency

procedures to students it is important that they understand

When experiencing a malfunction the pilot must still follow the

how the principles of Threat and Error Management can assist

old adage of:

them in such situations.

Aviate - establish an appropriate safe flight condition e.g.

Before the flight it is important that the procedures in the

straight and level flight, autorotation, orbit, land etc.

aircraft flight guide (FM) or Pilot Operating Handbook

(POH) are fully briefed and understood including, where

Navigate - it may be appropriate to turn away from high

appropriate, the manufacturer’s definitions for Land

ground, not enter controlled airspace, avoid DVE, select a

Immediately, Land as soon as Possible and Land as soon as

landing site to conduct a precautionary landing or divert

Practicable.

to an airfield.

A sound technical knowledge of the helicopter systems will

Communicate - a radio call to an appropriate agency to

assist the pilot in making an informed decision when faced with

inform them of the situation, the degree of urgency, any

an unusual situation. It is important during the aircraft technical

proposed actions and request assistance if required. Crew

knowledge training that the pilot understands how and where

and passengers should be briefed, which may be an

the cockpit indications are taken from, any common faults or

explanation of the malfunction and what actions you are

indications and how to differentiate between a system fault and

taking, (especially if diverting or conducting a precautionary

a gauge/warning light malfunction.

landing)! In the case of an emergency landing a warning to

adopt the pre-briefed 'Brace Position' would be included.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 105

During progressive training for non critical malfunctions the

instructor should introduce the fault in a realistic, unannounced

manner which will allow the student the ability to practise the

full 'DODAR' process of detection, diagnosis and corrective

actions. An example of this could be the failure of a hydraulic,

governor or electrical system. During cruise flight the

instructor could distract the student momentarily while de-

selecting the system. Once the student has conducted the

above actions the exercise should be completed to its

conclusion as much as is safely possible. Where a particular

malfunction requires that the pilot conducts a precautionary

landing, the instructor should ensure that the student is taught

to fly the aircraft safely to that site, while carrying out all

necessary actions, radio calls and landing site assessments.

When teaching critical malfunctions such as engine, tail rotor

failure etc in single engine helicopters it is important to pre warn

the student. Notwithstanding that, the student must also be

taught to recognise the symptoms of unexpected engine/ tail

rotor failures.

It is worth mentioning that emergencies may not be confined to

mechanical or electrical faults, for example, doors opening in

flight, passenger illness or behaviour and bad weather.

A useful technique, to introduce at this point is the pre-take

off/departure ‘eventualities’ brief. This short self brief, said out

loud, might cover what action to take in the event of an engine

failure at various heights, where to land and the action to be

taken in the event of a door coming open. It can be adapted to

suit the aircraft type, airfield and student’s ability.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 14c: Emergency procedures:

(A) abandoned take-off;

(B) missed approach and go-around;

(D) tail rotor control or tail rotor drive failure (briefing

only)

(E) simulated emergencies in the circuit to include:

(a) hydraulics failure;

(b) simulated engine failure on take-off, crosswind,

downwind and base leg;

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 106

FIRST SOLO

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

All necessary examinations completed.

Teaching Points

Medical held and current.

Instructor’s observation of flight and debriefing

Meteorological and air traffic conditions are suitable, the

Helicopter is fully serviceable with sufficient fuel, etc.

AIR EXERCISE

Ensure that the student can operate the required systems

Take-off and Landing

and equipment and use R/T communication.

Lift offs and landings should be reasonably smooth and

The instructor is qualified to send the student first solo.

consistently vertical. They should be with no yaw, sideways or

rearward drift. Hovering should be well controlled.

Advise control tower where applicable.

Transition and Climb

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

A clearing turn should precede the transition as a normal

airmanship manoeuvre. The transition to the Upwind Leg

Aim

should be smooth and well controlled as regards airspeed and

For the student to conduct a minimum of one circuit without an

power settings.

instructor on board.

Crosswind, Downwind and Base Legs

Review

The circuit should be consistently safe. The student should be

Exercises 11a - Circuit, Approach and Landing

aware of any inaccuracies and able to correct them without

Local Operating Procedures

assistance from the instructor.

Motivation

Final Approach

The first solo is a very important and never-to-be-forgotten

The student should be able to fly a safe approach and able to

experience in a pilot’s career.

correct large deviations from the selected approach angle.

Reduction of forward speed should be smooth and

Airmanship / TEM

progressive. The approach should consistently terminate with a

hover over the selected spot at the recommended height.

Brief student for first solo. This should be a short briefing,

to inform the student of the following;

Emergencies

(I)

the change of attitude from reduced and laterally

The student must be able to recognise and take corrective

displaced weight;

action for any emergency during the first solo trip, including an

engine failure from any point in the circuit.

(ii)

the danger of low tail, low skid or wheel during

hover, landing;

(iii)

dangers/recovery from of loss of RRPM and

overpitching;

(iv)

pre take-off checks;

(v)

into wind take-off;

(vi)

procedures during and after take-off;

(vii) normal circuit, approaches and landings;

(viii)

action if an emergency.

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Student Solo

A student’s first solo can be considered when the following

Ensuring student is prepared for change in Centre of Gravity

•

requirements have been met:

and cyclic position.

A safe standard has been reached in Air Exercises 1 - 14

A safe and acceptable standard has been reached in circuits.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 108

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

The first solo is a very important and never-to-be-forgotten

experience in a pilot's career. It gains even more importance in

a multi student course environment, particularly with a student

who is a slow learner. In this case it is generally necessary to

play down the significance of the first solo to prevent low

morale and an even slower rate of learning. Avoid referring to

“average hours to first solo” or condoning a spirit of

competition between students who are at the same phase of

the training curriculum.

The pre-solo flight should not exceed 45 minutes in order to

keep fatigue to a minimum.

It is not advisable to tell students that they are about to fly solo

until just before the actual flight. The possible apprehension

could delay the very flight that you are planning for them.

Before sending the student on the first solo, carry out sufficient

dual circuits to confirm consistency and competency, and that

suitable conditions exist.

Observe the flight and debrief the student afterwards

encourage the student to critique the flight too as this will form

an important part of future learning.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 15: First solo:

(A) instructor's briefing, observation of flight and

debriefing;

(B) warn of change of attitude from reduced and

laterally displaced weight;

landing;

(D) warn of dangers of loss of RRPM and overpitching;

(E) pre-take-off checks;

(F) into wind take-off;

(G) procedures during and after take-off;

(H) normal circuit, approaches and landings;

(I) action if an emergency.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 109

SIDEWAYS & BACKWARDS HOVER

MANOEUVRING

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

The wind can affect the cyclic position depending upon

Flight guide - Limitations

the direction and speed relative to the helicopter and

Centre of Gravity

there can be tendency for the helicopter to 'weather cock'

Wind Direction

when travelling sideways

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Collective - controls the height. Small adjustments may

be required in power and to maintain rotor RPM during

Aim

the manoeuvre. Height should be referenced to features

For the student to learn sideways and backwards hover

outside the helicopter.

manoeuvring into and out of the wind.

Pedals - control the heading of the helicopter. While the

helicopter is downwind the airflow through the tail rotor

Review

may become disturbed creating unstable yawing and

Exercises 11a, 11b and 11c - Hovering

when crosswind a weather cocking tendency may

Motivation

cause an increased rate of turn. Both should be

prevented/ overcome with appropriate pedal input.

The ability to fly sideways and backwards safely and accurately

for short distances is often required in helicopter operations.

Sideways flight into the wind;

Airmanship / TEM

Emphasise that before starting the manoeuvre a look

•

Lookout

sideways towards the direction the helicopter is intending

to travel is essential. A reference point to the side should

•

Obstructions

also be selected to assist in accuracy in the sideways hover.

•

Wind W/V and Weather Cocking

During the manoeuvre the lookout should then be broken

Helicopter Temperature & Pressure Limits

down to looking both forward of the helicopter and the

•

direction of travel, as looking only in the one direction will

Stability

•

make the exercise harder to achieve. The lookout and scan

Helicopter Sideways & Backwards Speed Limits

should be moved continuously between the direction of

•

travel, the helicopter heading, the height and the

Hover Height

•

instruments.

Teaching Points

Lookout

Explain the importance of the lookout before commencing

manoeuvring in order to identify any obstacles, other

Common

COMMON ERRORS

aircraft and ensure adequate tail clearance.

Errors

Controls

Students making too large an attitude change, and moving

•

Describe the helicopter controls’ specific function during

too fast.

sideways and backwards manoeuvring:

•

Students failing to maintain the selected attitude and

Cyclic - controls the helicopter direction of travel and

subsequently over controlling on the cyclic.

ground speed.

Ground speed should be slow and

constant throughout this manoeuvre. Cyclic movements

•

Poor height control.

should only be small to initiate small attitude changes to

Failure to maintain heading or "pedalling" on the yaw pedals.

•

prevent over-controlling while anticipating the lag of the

Poor look out.

•

cyclic control. Caution should be exercised as cyclic stop

Clearing Spot Turn before Backwards Hover.

limits may be reached due to the aircraft CoG and change

•

in W/V.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 110

AIR EXERCISE

Describe how the cyclic should be displaced into the

direction of travel to initiate the manoeuvre. This will alter

Demonstrate sideways hovering, in both directions, while

the helicopter disc attitude and then the helicopter will

heading into wind.

move in the direction of travel. Collective should be used to

Student Practice

maintain the height. Pedals are used to maintain the

helicopter heading. To stop the sideways movement the

Demonstrate sideways hovering, in both directions, whilst out

cyclic should be used to reselect the normal hover attitude,

of wind including recovery from excessive pitch nose down.

collective to maintain height and pedals to maintain

Student Practice

helicopter heading.

Demonstrate backwards hovering while heading into wind.

During sideways hovering it is possible for one skid to be

Student Practice

lower than when in the normal hover attitude. Hovering too

Demonstrate backwards hovering while heading out of wind.

low or allowing the aircraft to sink during sideways hovering

may lead to inadvertent ground contact, which could cause

Student Practice

the aircraft to roll over.

Demonstrate a combined sideways and backwards hovering

Backwards flight heading into wind:

manoeuvre.

Student Practice

Emphasise that before any backwards manoeuvre it is

critical to perform a spot turn to ensure that the helicopter

will be travelling into a safe and unobstructed area. Describe

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

how, when moving backwards the helicopter will have a

nose up attitude. Consequently the tail and tail rotor will be

Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the

lower than when in a normal hover attitude. Therefore the

manoeuvre, especially in the direction of travel. Make a

hover height should be increased before commencing the

thorough reconnaissance of the area to be used for sideways

manoeuvring.

and backwards hovering for obstructions, F.O.D., and ground

features. The exercise will be performed close to the ground.

Describe how a reference point in front of the helicopter

should be selected to assist in maintaining helicopter

Initially the student may find it difficult to maintain a constant

heading/speed/height, which often leads to over controlling.

heading. The cyclic should be moved aft, which will cause a

nose up attitude and the helicopter will then start to hover

References are useful for a student to gain accuracy. For

backwards. It is essential that a slow speed is maintained

sideways hovering, where possible, choose a line feature in

front of the helicopter to follow. For backwards hovering

as excessive speed can cause the airflow over the

choose a feature in front of the helicopter. The student may not

horizontal stabiliser to produce a nose down tendency,

anticipate the wind, the weather cocking effects and sink rate.

which may not be possible to correct by aft cyclic when

Therefore as the exercise will be performed close to the ground

attempting to recover . The collective is used to maintain

careful monitoring of all the controls is important.

height and the pedals to maintain the helicopter heading.

The student can find this exercise fatiguing and it may be

Sideways and backwards flight out of the wind:

necessary to break up the lesson with other simple exercises.

Once the student is proficient in this exercise it is possible to

Explain that how once competent in manoeuvring sideways

combine manoeuvres with spot turns (Exercise 16), in relation

and backwards into wind, the exercises can be repeated out

to flying a square pattern over the ground with the helicopter

of wind. Describe the different cyclic positions required

heading in various directions.

relative to the wind, and how hovering sideways or

backwards out of wind will require the helicopter to

If long distances are required to be travelled while hovering

overcome the wind before the helicopter will begin to

backwards, then frequent stops and clearing spot turns should

be performed for safety.

move. Explain why the power requirements will differ with

weight and wind direction relative to the helicopter and why

Explain that it is preferable to hover taxi the helicopter in a

attention will be required to ensure power limits are not

forward direction rather than sideways or backwards, due to

exceeded during any manoeuvres.

difficulties with lookout and engine failure considerations.

Hover taxiing in a forward direction also improves helicopter

Combination of sideways and backward manoeuvring:

stability and pilot control.

Explain that how once competent in manoeuvring sideways

If the engine failed during sideways hover, the student must

and backwards into, and out of wind, it is possible to use a

stop the sideways movement with cyclic, maintain heading

combination of the techniques to fly the aircraft in any given

with pedals, allow the helicopter to settle and cushion the

direction and hold any given heading.

landing with collective. Not preventing the helicopter from

sideways movement with ground contact may lead to the

helicopter rolling over.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 111

SPOT TURNS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Flight Manual - Limitations

Controls;

Centre of Gravity

Describe the helicopter controls’ specific function during

spot turns:

Wind Direction

Cyclic - controls the position over the ground. The cyclic

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

will need to be moved into wind to maintain position and

prevent drift. Cyclic movements should only be small to

Aim

initiate small attitude changes to prevent over-controlling

For the student to learn how to turn the helicopter on the

whilst anticipating the lag of the cyclic control. Caution

spot through 360,˚ while maintaining a constant position and

should be exercised as cyclic stop limits may be reached

height by turning about

due to the aircraft CoG and change in W/V.

• the pilot position;

Collective - controls the height. Small adjustments may

be required in power and to maintain rotor RPM during

•

around the tail rotor;

the manoeuvre. Height should be referenced to features

•

about the geometric centre;

outside the helicopter.

by making a square and safe visible clearing turn;

•

Pedals - control the rate of turn of the helicopter.

Review

While the helicopter is downwind the airflow through

the tail rotor may become disturbed creating unstable

Exercise 11a, 11b and 11c - Hovering

yawing and when crosswind a weather cocking

Exercise 16 - Sideways & Backwards Hover Manoeuvring

tendency may cause an increased rate of turn, both

Motivation

should be prevented/overcome with appropriate pedal

Having already learned the 90 degree 'lookout turn' in previous

Turning Around Geometric Centre;

exercises this exercise will teach how to turn the aircraft safely

through 360 degrees in order to check clearance all around the

Describe how this turn uses the vertical axis of the

aircraft before manoeuvring.

helicopter as the centre of the circle, and the helicopter

rotates around the vertical axis (generally taken as the

Airmanship / TEM

rotor mast). Pedals are used to initiate the turn in the

• Lookout

desired direction and then to control the rate of turn at a

steady, constant rate.

•

Obstructions

•

W/V

Helicopter Temperature & Pressure Limits

•

Helicopter Sideways & Backwards Speed Limits

•

Hover Height

•

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Teaching Points

Lookout;

Failure to control rate of turn resulting in erratic movement.

•

Explain the importance of the lookout before commencing

•

Failure to correct drift.

any turns in order to identify any obstacles, other aircraft

and to ensure adequate safe tail clearance. Describe how

Poor rotor RPM control and failure to anticipate effect of

•

during the lookout that reference points for the turn are

large yaw pedal applications.

selected to assist in accuracy and that whilst the aim is to

Failure to maintain a constant height.

perform

360˚ spot turns at a constant rate, initially the

•

turns will be broken down into 90º quadrants.

Poor Lookout in all directions before commencing turn.

•

Failure to adjust for wind direction and speed during the turn.

•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 114

Turning Around Tail Rotor;

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Describe how this turn uses the tail rotor as the centre of

Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the

the circle, and the helicopter prescribes a circle around the

manoeuvre, especially in the direction of travel. Make a

tail rotor. The cyclic is applied laterally to move the

thorough reconnaissance of the area to be used for spot turns

helicopter sideways in the direction of turn. At the same

for obstructions, F.O.D., and ground features. Initially the turns

time the pedal should be applied in the direction of turn.

can be broken down into 90º quadrants using reference points

This technique is useful for turning the helicopter in

in each quadrant.

confined areas as it may protect the tail rotor from

Initially the student may find it difficult to maintain a constant

Turning Around Pilots Position;

rate of turn, which often leads to over controlling with the

Describe how this turn uses the pilot’s position as the

pedals. The student may not anticipate the wind and weather

centre of the circle, and the helicopter prescribes a circle

cocking effects and, as the exercise will be performed close to

the ground, careful monitoring of all the controls is important.

around the pilot's position. The cyclic is applied laterally to

move the helicopter sideways in the direction of turn. At the

The student can find this exercise fatiguing and it may be

necessary to break up the lesson with other simple exercises.

same time the pedal should be applied in the direction of

turn.

Once the student is proficient in spot turns it is possible to

Square and Safe Visibility Turn;

combine manoeuvres with sideways hovering (Exercise 16), in

relation to flying a square pattern over the ground with the

Adopt a slightly higher than normal hover height. Hover taxi

helicopter heading in various directions.

sideward whilst maintaining, at least an aircraft length

ideally in the direction the pilot can see (i.e. pilots side). Spot

turn through 90 degrees so the tail is now in the know clear

area where the aircraft was previously positioned. Repeat

as required through around the 4 sides of the square until

back at start position whilst maintaining a lookout for

obstructions.

AIR EXERCISE

Demonstrate 360˚spot turns, about the geometric centre in

both directions.

Student Practice

Demonstrate 360˚ spot turns, around the tail rotor in both

directions.

Student Practice

Demonstrate 360˚ spot turns, around the pilot position in both

directions.

Student Practice

Demonstrate square and safe visibility clearing turn.

Student Practice

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 17: Spot turns:

(A) revise hovering into wind and downwind;

(B) turn on spot through 360º:

(a) around pilots position;

(b) around tail rotor;

(d) square and safe visibility clearing turn.

stops due to CG position and wind speed and

direction.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 115

HOVER OGE AND VORTEX RING

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

low rate of descent to a normal hover height maintaining the

Flight guide:

same ground position.

•

Limitations

Describe how then it is possible to bring the aircraft to a

• Critical wind azimuth areas

steady controlled hover from forward flight, at altitude

using, outside and inside references to maintain heading,

•

Loss of Tail Rotor Effectiveness (LTE)

prevent drift and control height.

• Performance - HV Graph, LTE and OGE Hover Charts

Explain where OGE Hover operations are conducted within

Principles of Flight:

the HV or Height-Velocity Diagram's shaded areas (avoid

areas), prolonged exposures for training purposes must be

• Vortex Ring

minimised.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Vortex Ring

Aim

Revise the requirements for Vortex Ring state and describe

For the student to:

that how at low airspeeds with ROD and high power

settings, (such as in the OGE hover, steep approach,

• Recognise and carry out the recovery actions for LTE.

downwind approach etc), it is possible to get into initially,

•

Learn Hovering OGE

incipient, then the full stage of vortex ring, if the

inappropriate action is taken to correct a rate of ROD (which

Recognise and carry out the recovery action for the

•

can be as low as >300ft/ min).

incipient stage of vortex ring.

Explain how incipient vortex ring will be induced in the flight

Review

exercise at a safe height under controlled conditions, the

Exercise 13: Transitions

symptoms to look for and the recovery action to be taken.

Exercise 11a: Hovering

LTE

Motivation

Revise the requirements for LTE and describe that how, at

Hover OGE has applications in later exercises such as confined

low airspeeds, with high power settings, (such as in the

areas operations. While at low airspeeds without immediate

OGE hover, steep approach, downwind approach etc), it is

ground references (and not monitoring) the instruments it is

possible to reduce the effectiveness of tail rotor and the

possible to mishandle the aircraft and get into a LTE or Vortex

aircraft’s directional stability. Explain that LTE is generally

Ring condition. Therefore it is essential to to be able to identity

considered to be an insufficient tail rotor thrust associated

the requirements for LTE/Vortex Ring in order to avoid them

with a control margin deficiency, which can result in an

and, if encountered, recognise the symptoms and carry out the

uncommanded rapid yaw rate. This yaw may not subside of

correct recovery actions.

its own accord and, if not corrected, can result in the loss of

a helicopter.

•

Lookout:

Explain how LTE will be induced in the flight exercise at a

Helicopter limitations: temperatures and pressures, power

•

safe height under controlled conditions, the symptoms to

and transmission limits as applicable.

look for and the recovery action to be taken.

Teaching Points

OGE Hover

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Describe what the OGE hover is, when it would be utilised

Errors

and how it will be practised in later exercises Ex 26, 28 and 29.

Explain how a power check is conducted in the IGE to

•

Caused by pilot inattention to flight regime, especially during

establish the available power margin. Then how, by use of

low speed orbit and downwind manoeuvring.

forward and side reference markers, it is possible to climb

•

Exercise can overly worry the student.

vertically until outside of IGE and establish a steady hover by

controlling drift height and power. Then describe how it is

possible, by use of the references, to descend slowly with

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 116

AIR EXERCISE

Demonstrate hover IGE and power check

Student practice

Demonstrate hover OGE

Student practice

Demonstrate coming to, and maintaining steady hover OGE

from forward flight at altitude.

Student practice

Demonstrate at safe height, the requirements, recognition

and recovery for incipient vortex ring state.

Student practice

Demonstrate at a safe height, the requirements, recognition

and recovery for LTE.

Student practice

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Make a thorough reconnaissance of the area before and during

the lesson, looking particularly for bushes, fences, rocks,

stumps and loose articles (FOD), as you will be operating close

to the ground.

For the Hover OGE demonstration a suitable obstacle with

vertical extent, e.g. a large bush or small tree should be used to

provide vertical reference. There should be a choice of lateral

and longitudinal reference points available.

For the HOGE from forward flight/Vortex Ring/LTE

demonstrations it is very likely that the ATO has a prescribed

minimum height for the exercises which should be adhered to.

Although the exercises should generally be conducted into

wind they could be conducted out of wind. However the onset

of the symptoms is likely to be more rapid and unpredictable

and therefore this should be taken into account when deciding

the safe height for the exercises to be commenced from.

Although it is unlikely that a student should wish to intentionally

practise Vortex Ring and LTE by himself, it should be explained

that these exercises are only to practised with an instructor!

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 18: Hover OGE and vortex ring:

(A) establishing hover OGE;

(B) drift, height or power control;

recognition and recovery (from a safe altitude);

(D) loss of tail rotor effectiveness.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 117

SIMULATED EOL

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Teaching Points

The Avoid Curve

The effects of weight, disc loading, density altitude and RRPM

Review the procedures for basic autorotation and describe

the technique for landing as follows:

decay in autorotation.

The autorotative flare

Ensure that a safe landing area is within autorotative range

and check the wind velocity.

Flare theory

Enter autorotation and select airspeed for the minimum rate

Flight guide emergency procedures

of descent.

When certain that the landing will be in the safe area, close

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

the throttle completely, where appropriate to type.

Aim

At the appropriate height above the ground, commence the

The aim is for the student to;

flare and vary the amount of flare as required to control

speed, RoD and RRPM.

(A) understand the effect of weight, disc loading,

density attitude and RRPM decay;

As appropriate to type at the specified height either level

the aircraft and apply collective pitch as required to

(B) revise basic autorotation entry;

reduce the rate of descent and cushion the landing.

practise optimum use of cyclic and collective to control

(C)

Alternatively use the collective lever to check the RoD

speed or RRPM;

descent before levelling the aircraft and cushioning the

practise variable flare simulated EOL;

touchdown with the remainder of the collective lever. A

(D)

slight accelerative attitude may be required to perform a

have demonstrated constant attitude simulated EOL;

(E)

running landing.

have demonstrated simulated EOL from hover or hover

(F)

Prevent yaw throughout with the pedals.

taxi;

have demonstrated simulated EOL from transition and

(G)

low level.

Review

Exercise 10: Basic autorotation

Exercise 11c: Engine Failure in the Hover or Hover-taxi

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Motivation

Errors

The primary purpose of autorotations is to save crew and

passengers from injury following an in-flight engine failure or

Incorrect flare height and failure to hold the flare.

•

similar major emergency. In practice autorotations, there is also

Failure to recover to touchdown attitude, thus endangering

•

the need to avoid damaging the helicopter. These skills can be

the tail rotor.

acquired and maintained only with practice in varying conditions

and configurations..

•

Failure to correct for drift or yaw.

Incorrect use of the collective lever either too early or too

Airmanship / TEM

•

late.

• Pre-entry checks

Failure to lower collective lever after aircraft has stopped or

•

Post-entry checks as appropriate to type

lowering too quickly during the landing run.

•

Aircraft performance limitations

Making a second flare if run on speed appears too fast.

•

Wind speed and direction

Moving cyclic rear-wards on touchdown.

•

Suitable landing area

•

Lookout

•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 118

Describe the post-landing procedures:

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Ensure that the cyclic is in a neutral or forward position.

EOL training is not without risk. However careful planning/

Avoid moving the cyclic aft during or after touchdown.

preparation and good use of CRM and TEM should mitigate

Lower the collective slowly to the bottom position. Care

the associated risks.

must be taken if the tail boom is pitching due to forward

Prior to entry all the conditions should be verified as suitable

movement on the ground.

including the wind (not too little/too strong, no gusts,

Carry out pre-take-off checks.

turbulence or wind shear, aircraft weight (too heavy high RoD;

too light low RRPM) and the landing area (not waterlogged, long

Explain that, where EOLs are considered unsafe in light of the

grass, uneven etc). It is advisable to initially conduct a a datum

aircraft’s performance characteristics, the wind conditions,

autorotation to a power recovery to verify these factors and

aircraft weight, unstable ground conditions, or the density

establish an entry point for the EOL. As a final check, at a

altitude conditions, power terminations to the hover or hover-

minimum of 300' AGL the aircraft should be 'straight and level,

taxi may be used to provide continuation in autorotation

no yaw or drift, good RoD, RRPM in limits, correct airspeed and

practice.

going to make the area'. If one of these parameters is not

Describe the technique for carrying out a power termination to

correct or, if in doubt, a 'go around' is advisable.

the hover or hover-taxi, as appropriate to type and local

There is a need for the instructor to follow through on the

conditions:

controls during autorotational landings. Take care that you do

not make the exercise worthless by inadvertently leading,

Ensure that a safe landing area is within autorotational

rather than following, through.

range.

This exercise should be practised only in areas known to be

Enter autorotation and select the airspeed for minimum rate

safe and suitable for an EOL.

of descent. Reduce power to idle as appropriate to type.

The student should practise autorotations in as many varied

Ensure that the RPM is in the correct range.

conditions as possible, because the type of autorotative flare

At a safe height, adjust RPM as appropriate.

will vary. Varying conditions include the wind, aircraft weight,

At the appropriate height, flare.

air density and size/, surface of the selected landing area.

Both zero-speed and run-on touchdowns should be practised

At the appropriate height, level the aircraft.

and the student taught when to employ each technique.

Apply power to stop sink and establish a hover or hover-taxi;

This is a stressful and demanding exercise for both student and

preventing yaw and drift.

instructor. Resist the temptation to attempt ‘just one more’ at

the end of the lesson, as you will usually find the student’s

AIR EXERCISE

performance will get worse, not better.

Demonstrate a variable flare autorotation into wind terminating

Brief the student on the school’s policy on autorotations to

in a power recovery.

touchdown. Most schools do NOT allow them to be practised

solo.

Student practice (dual only)

Demonstrate a variable flare autorotation into wind terminating

in a simulated EOL.

Student practice (dual only)

LESSON CHECKLIST

Demonstrate constant attitude simulated EOL.

Student practice (dual only)

Exercise 19: Simulated EOL:

(A) the effect of weight, disc loading, density attitude

Demonstrate simulated EOL from hover or hover taxi.

and RRPM decay;

Student practice (dual only)

(B) revise basic autorotation entry;

Demonstrate simulated EOL from transition and low level.

speed or RRPM;

Student practice (dual only)

(D) variable flare simulated EOL;

(E) demonstrate constant attitude simulated EOL;

(F) demonstrate simulated EOL from hover or hover

taxi;

(G) demonstrate simulated EOL from transition and

low level.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 119

ADVANCED AUTOROTATION

GROUND SCHOOL

Extending the range

Flight guide: Limitations

Point out that there is no benefit from exceeding the

manufacturer’s recommended maximum range speed, and

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

that exceeding autorotational VNE will result in drastic rotor

Aim

RPM decay.

For the student to learn how to vary range in autorotation by

Describe the techniques, speeds, and RRPM to be

the use of:

used for the range/maximum range autorotations and

•

range autorotations;

the resultant angle of descent, RoD and distance

achievable.

•

low speed autorotation;

Point out that it is advantageous to reduce the airspeed to

•

constant attitude autorotation 'S' turns;

minimum rate-of-descent speed as early as possible in

turns through 180° and 360°;

•

order to reduce the rate of descent to more desirable

the effects on angles of descent, IAS, RRPM and effect

proportions.

•

of AUM.

Reducing the range

Review

Describe the techniques, speeds, angles of bank and

Entry to Autorotation and power terminated/touchdown

RRPM to be used in the low speed, constant attitude,

'S' turns and turns through 180° and 360° autorotations

autorotations

and the resultant angle of descent, RoD and distance

Autorotational flight envelope, including airspeed and rotor

achievable.

RPM limitations

Low Speed

Effects of airspeed, RRPM, turns and RoD on range and angle

of descent when in autorotation.

Describe the hazards associated with the low speed

autorotation including high RoD, RRPM control and

Motivation

directional stability and how it is important to keep a positive

Autorotation at the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed is

airspeed (ideally 10-20kts). Explain how in a strong wind

the ideal. It is vital, that the student be capable of taking full

condition this may result in a negative or rearwards

advantage of the helicopter’s capabilities in autorotation to

movement across the ground, which can be utilised if trying

reach the intended landing spot.

to achieve an LS underneath or close to the aircraft.

Airmanship / TEM

Stress the height loss and need to increase airspeed to the

minimum rate-of-descent speed as soon as possible, in

• Safety checks

order to reduce the rate of descent to manageable

proportions.

• Safe landing area

• Lookout

Common

• Wind velocity

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Teaching Points

State the airspeed and RRPM for maximum range and VNE in

•

Trying to turn into wind when too low. Emphasise that wind

autorotation. Point out the increase in rate of descent, as

is only one of the factors involved.

appropriate to type.

•

Allowing the speed to drop too low when re-engaging after

Minimum Rate of Descent;

constant attitude autorotation.

•

Continuing the flare too near the ground.

Indicate what the typical distance, angle of descent and

Re-applying power before putting the aircraft into an

RoD would be using the aircraft minimum rate RoD

•

accelerating attitude thus risking vortex ring.

autorotation speed.

Poor RPM control, in varying load conditions.

•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 122

Constant Attitude

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Describe the hazards associated with the constant attitude

On the initial demonstration of each type of range variation,

autorotation especially the high RoD, RRPM control and

use the same line feature (such as a fence or road

directional stability and how it is important to maintain the

perpendicular to direction of travel) as a reference point to enter

recommended airspeed. Describe how this technique can

when the aircraft is directly over it and pick a feature in the

be utilised to achieve an LS close to the aircraft or at

middle distance to assist with heading and yaw control. Always

night/poor visibility where a flare height cannot be judged

enter using the same height, speed or power setting. This

and the constant attitude EOL could be used.

ensures that the student appreciates the difference in distance

Emphasise the need to maintain the aircraft attitude in the

and angle of descent for each technique.

recovery and the need to apply an element of forward cyclic

After teaching the individual methods of range variation,be

when raising the collective lever to prevent speed

sure that students understand that these are the basics, and

reduction, - which if reduced could lead to vortex ring as the

that they usually have to use combinations to make the landing

power is applied at low airspeed with a high RoD.

spot. When students have grasped the basics, introduce

situations that require them to assess and use a combination of

Turns

different techniques.

Describe the hazards associated with turns in autorotation

Emphasise that, when you vary the range, the helicopter

especially the high RoD, RRPM control and maintaining

attitude/airspeed. Explain that normally the minimum RoD

should be returned to the normal autorotational touchdown

profile by 300 feet.

airspeed should be used in the turns but this can be varied to

extend/shorten the radius of turn to achieve a nominated

In some helicopters, there is a high risk of the engine and rotor

LS.

overspeeding occurring when the disc is loaded. Instructors

should be particularly vigilant during student’s practice and

Explain how the 'S' turns can be used effectively to lose

teaching the student to anticipate the increased disc loading

height when close to a LS whilst maintaining airspeed.

with collective pitch.

Explain how the 180° turn can be used from downwind to

turn back into wind and what the typical height loss can be in

the turn.

Explain how the 360° turn can be used in light wind

conditions to achieve an LS directly underneath the aircraft

AIR EXERCISE

Over the same selected point at a safe height (normally

minimum 1500-2000 agl) demonstrate the following

autorotation techniques, highlighting in each case the angle

of descent, the RoD and distance achievable:

Demonstrate datum autorotation

Student practice

Demonstrate range autorotation

Student practice

LESSON CHECKLIST

Demonstrate maximum (extended range) autorotation

Exercise 20: Advanced autorotation:

(A) over a selected point at various height and speed;

Student practice

(B) revise basic autorotation: note ground distance

Demonstrate constant attitude autorotation

covered;

Student practice

Demonstrate low speed autorotation

(D) low speed autorotation;

(E) constant attitude autorotation (terminate at safe

Student practice

altitude);

Demonstrate ‘S’ turns in autorotation

(F) 'S' turns;

Student practice

(G) turns through 180 ° and 360 °;

(H) effects on angles of descent, IAS, RRPM and effect

Demonstrate 180/360 turns in autorotation

of AUM.

Student practice

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 124

PRACTICE FORCED LANDINGS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Flight guide: Emergency procedures

Describe the actions that should be taken, time, height and

other factors permitting, during a forced landing including the

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

aircraft engine relight procedures.

Aim

Stress that pilots should be aware of wind velocities at all times.

It is always preferable to be into-wind on a forced approach, but

For the student to learn how to carry out a safe forced landing

a suitable landing area is the prime consideration. In other

following an engine failure

words, it is better to land down-wind in an open field when the

Review

only alternative is to land in tall trees with the wind on the nose.

Autorotations: Exercises 10, 19 & 20.

Discuss requirements of a forced landing area in relation to size,

shape, surrounds, surface and slope.

Motivation

Remind the student that turns and speeds above or below the

Although helicopter engines are nowadays generally reliable,

manufacturer’s recommended speed in autorotation increase

failures do still occur. The lives of pilots and their passengers

the rate of descent substantially.

are dependent on pilot skill and judgement in achieving a safe

landing should an engine failure occur.

Discuss the relationship between stored energy

Airmanship / TEM

(kinetic/potential), RRPM, airspeed and height.

Discuss the problem associated with ditching a helicopter.

• Safety checks

Discuss the techniques of forced landing into trees,

• Safe landing area

mountainous terrain and built-up areas.

• Recovery altitude or height

Point out that an engine failure when flying at low level and low

• Wind velocity

speeds, over obstacles will result in a forced landing that is

difficult to successfully accomplish without damage and injury.

• Lookout

For this reason, pilots should never fly lower or slower than is

• Verbal warning

necessary.

Teaching Points

Discuss re-engagement and go around procedures appropriate

to type.

Describe the immediate actions that must be taken in the event

of an engine failure:

Enter autorotation

Select a suitable landing area

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Plan approach

Select airspeed(s) and heading(s) in order to make the

Continuing to turn into wind too low.

•

selected area

Neglecting checks or concentrating too much on checks to

•

Transmit MAYDAY

the detriment of judgement.

Identifly the cause of ailure and correct it if possible

Failure to adjust flight path when going around or to select

•

Actuate the ELT (if equipped with guide control)

another landing area if too low.

Not deciding early enough on the type of touchdown to be

Warn passengers

•

carried out resulting in confusion at the later stages.

Switch off electrics if fire is suspected

Failure to correct for drift and maintain balanced flight.

•

Land.

Continuing the flare too near the ground.

Re-engagement and go around procedures from practice

Re-applying power before the aircraft accelerates, thus

forced landing.

•

risking vortex ring.

Poor choice of landing area.

•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 126

AIR EXERCISE

Demonstrate forced landings from a height that will allow the

full procedure to be carried out without haste.

Student practice

Demonstrate practice forced landings of increasing difficulty

from different altitudes.

Student practice

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

This is not a procedure that can be allotted a certain time period for

the course and left at that. After students are competent they

should be given surprise practice engine failures without

sufficiently warning them on as many dual flights as possible. This

enables students to practise the procedure regularly and will

develop the judgement skills necessary to consistently make the

selected area, practise the immediate actions and simulate the

radio calls.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 21: Practice forced landings:

(A) procedure and choice of the forced landing area;

(B) forced landing checks and crash action;

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 127

STEEP TURNS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

AIR EXERCISE

Flight guide: Power L imitations

Demonstrate steep/maximum bank rate turns in both

directions.

Requirements for a Steep Turn

Student practice

Offset Seating

Demonstrate steep autorotative turns.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Student practice.

Aim

Demonstrate the effect of wind on turns at low level.

For the student to learn how to carry out;

Student practice.

steep (level) turns (30 degrees bank)

•

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

maximum rate turns (45 degrees bank if possible)

•

steep autorotative turns

Emphasise the importance of a good lookout before and during

•

the turn.

Review

This is an excellent coordination exercise of all controls at

Exercise 9: Turning

altitude, but when practised at low level, emphasise the

dangers of sinking in a turn towards the ground and of drifting in

Motivation

strong wind conditions towards obstacles.

Operationally, the steep turn is a flight manoeuvre that can be

used for traffic, obstacle or terrain avoidance. It is included in

the pilot flight training for this reason.

Airmanship / TEM

• Lookout

• Power limitations

• RRPM limits

Teaching Points

Describe the visual cues, vibration, control feedback and where

applicable, instrument indications in order to maintain balance,

attitude, RRPM, disc loading, bank and co-ordination.

Review the effects of controls in the turn.

Describe the effect of wind on the radius of turn at low level.

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

The student often fails to appreciate that speed is reduced if

•

cyclic is used to maintain height.

In autorotative turns, it is sometimes not fully appreciated

•

that there is a lag between collective lever application and a

change in RRPM which can lead to over controlling.

Furthermore, if the attitude is not held there is a very quick

increase/decrease of airspeed.

Out of balance flight.

•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 128

TRANSITIONS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Initially use the yaw pedals to keep the aircraft pointing at

Flight guide

the reference feature. As the speed increases past

Limitations

approximately 25 kts check the balance and adjust the pedal

setting accordingly. Stabilise the helicopter at 50kts

Ground effect/translation lift/flapback

maintaining height.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Describe how to transition back to the hover as follows:

Aim

From 50 kts adopt a slight decelerative, nose up, attitude

whilst at the same time lowering the collective lever

For the student to learn how to transition from the hover into

sufficiently to prevent the aircraft climbing.

forward flight while remaining close to the ground and then

As the helicopter slows down, translational lift is lost and

transition back to the hover.

the collective has to be progressively applied to maintain

Review

height. Heading should be maintained using yaw pedals

Exercise 13 Transitions from the hover to climb and approach to

throughout.

hover.

As the power is increased the additional downwash over

Motivation

the horizontal stabiliser can tend to pitch the aircraft more

nose up which should be overcome by use of cyclic.

When hover taxiing large distances or when an aircraft is

required to hover quickly, ( for example crossing a runway of a

As the speed approaches zero adopt the hover attitude and

large airport), it may be necessary to accelerate into forward

bring the helicopter to a steady hover before reducing

flight remaining close to the ground and then return to the

height to a normal hover height.

hover.

Airmanship / TEM

AIR EXERCISE

Demonstrate the effect of wind on transitions

• Lookout

Demonstrate the transition from the hover into forward flight

• W/V

while remaining close to the ground and then transition back to

the hover.

• Helicopter limitations

Student practice

Teaching Points

Describe how the transition from the hover into wind can be

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

conducted as follows;

This is essentially an advanced coordination exercise which

Before transitioning conduct a lookout turn, ensure the area

increases confidence when close to the ground and is a prelude

ahead is clear and select a reference feature ahead as an

to Exercise 24 Quickstops.

aiming point.

If required, the exercise may be broken down into transitioning

Establish a higher than normal hover height before initiating

from the hover and transitioning to hover required before

a gentle transition. Use the collective to maintain height to

combining the exercise.

compensate for loss of ground effect and the disc tilt. As the

speed increases it will be necessary to lower the collective

lever to prevent a height gain due to translation lift.

Common

Throughout the acceleration it will be necessary to

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

compensate for the effects of 'flapback' by applying

forward cyclic to maintain the accelerative attitude.

• Students usually have difficulty controlling height and

engine rpm due to the fairly large power changes involved,

particularly at the transition stage.

Constant practice is required before a student reaches the

•

required degree of accuracy.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 130

QUICK STOPS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Dangers of Vortex

Maintain height throughout with the collective.

Dangers of High Disc Loading

Maintain RPM throughout with the throttle.

Over Pitching

Prevent yaw with the pedals.

Explain that the deceleration will initially be gentle and

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

gradual, from a fairly low speed of entry, in order to

Aim

concentrate on smoothness and accuracy. The

manoeuvre can be speeded-up as necessary after the

For the student to learn how to come to the hover into wind

basic ability has been acquired.

from various speeds, maintaining a constant altitude;

Explain that when you are making a more rapid

•

into wind

deceleration there is a larger change of attitude in the flare

from cross wind and downwind terminating into wind

•

and a greater resultant tendency to gain height. This, in

turn, will require larger collective movements to prevent a

Review

climb and larger pedal movements to prevent yaw.

Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes

Point out that at no time should the flare be so harsh that it

Dangers of vortex ring

is necessary to split the needles in order to prevent an

Dangers of high disc loading

overspeed. It is important, however, to explain and

Motivation

demonstrate the recovery sequence should this happen

inadvertently.

Rapid decelerations straight ahead are a useful exercise for

developing coordination and accuracy during training. They are

Review the dangers of potential vortex ring state when

also a means of aborting a departure from larger confined areas.

reducing speed downwind or height is lost at low or no

Those involving a level minimum radius turn have practical

forward airspeed.

application in the avoidance of obstacles or bad weather

conditions under operational conditions.

Quick stops from cross wind and downwind terminating

Airmanship / TEM

into wind

Describe the technique for performing a rapid deceleration

• Lookout

involving a level turn from crosswinds into wind, as follows:

• Engine and airframe limitations.

From cruise at 30 to 50 feet AGL, from level flight,

• Wind speed and direction

commence a level, balanced turn.

Teaching Points

Initiate a flare while in the turn whilst maintaining height.

Straight ahead into wind

Roll out heading into wind.

Describe how to carry out a rapid deceleration straight ahead

into wind as follows:

From straight and level at 50kt, 20-30ft agl with cruise

power set, commence a gentle flare with cyclic control

while simultaneously lowering the collective lever to

maintain height and maintain direction with yaw pedals.

At low forward speed, start levelling the helicopter.

As the aircraft slows anticipate the loss of translational lift

by applying collective lever and establish a hover.

When safely established in high hover descend out of the

avoid curve into low hover without delay.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 132

Turn and Flare

Common

From straight and level at 50kt, 30-50ft agl with cruise

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

power set, commence a turn through 180 degrees. Once

established in the turn commence a flare to reduce speed

•

Lack of accurate yaw control due to large power changes.

using the collective lever to maintain height.

•

Maintaining the flared attitude after zero ground speed.

Maintain 30kts until within 30 degrees of the wind (to

prevent LTE).

Over pitching due to lack of anticipation of throttle

•

movement when increasing power to establish hover after

As the aircraft slows anticipate the loss of translational lift

making a Quick Stop.

by applying collective lever and establish a hover. When

safely established in high hover descend out of the avoid

Lack of awareness of possible Vortex Ring State during

•

curve into low hover without delay.

deceleration stage of Quick Stop.

Discuss the forward distance covered versus radius of turn.

• Failure to correct yaw with power changes.

AIR EXERCISE

Applying too much power during acceleration, over pitching.

•

Demonstrate a straight-ahead deceleration from cruising

•

Slow to rejoin the needles.

flight into wind.

Student practice

Demonstrate a rapid deceleration involving a 90° turn into wind

As the aircraft slows anticipate the loss of translational lift

by applying collective lever and establish a hover.

Student practice

When safely established in high hover descend out of the

Demonstrate a rapid deceleration involving a 180° turn

avoid curve into low hover without delay.

into wind using 'flare and turn' and 'turn and flare'

techniques.

Come to a hover or resume forward speed.

Student practice

Maintain height throughout.

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Maintain balanced flight and prevent yaw.

Decelerations involving a turn into wind require a high level of

Describe the techniques of performing a rapid deceleration

coordination and accuracy. They should be introduced as an

involving a level turn from the down wind terminating into

advanced exercise towards the end of the training syllabus.

wind.

It is important to stress smoothness and accuracy. The student

Flare and Turn

should initially master gentle decelerations from airspeeds

From straight and level at 50kt, 30-

50ft agl with cruise

outside the avoid areas of the height/velocity diagram for the

power set, commence a flare with cyclic control whilst

helicopter to the hover, with the accent on smoothness,

simultaneously lowering the collective.

accuracy of height and RPM. Overpitching, yaw and tail rotor

drift are common errors in the early stages and should be

As speed reduces, commence 180 degree turn whilst

corrected before speeding up the manoeuvre.

maintaining height in the turn with collective lever.

After smoothness and accuracy have been established, the

Maintain 30kts until within 30 degrees of the wind (to

entry speeds can gradually be increased to the cruise and the

prevent LTE).

rate of deceleration increased.

As the aircraft slows anticipate the loss of translational lift

Loss of height in the turns and when translational lift is lost is a

by applying collective lever and establish a hover. When

common fault.

safely established in high hover descend out of the avoid

curve into low hover without delay.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Discuss the forward distance covered versus radius of

turn.

Exercise 24: Quick stops:

(A) use of power and controls;

(B) effect of wind;

(D) quick stops from crosswind and downwind

terminating into wind;

(E) danger of vortex ring;

(F) danger of high disc loading.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 133

25a

NAVIGATION

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Explain that successful navigation flights commence with

Maps/charts: symbols, scales, etc.

thorough planning. Begin by deciding the route to be flown

and selecting the appropriate maps.

Navigation Computer

The route may be a straight line between the point of

Mental Dead Reckoning (MDR)

departure and destination, but need not necessarily be so.

Departure and arrival procedures

The most appropriate route may involve a turning point to

Track selection: drift lines, increments

avoid for example, built up areas, controlled airspace,

inhospitable terrain

NOTAM's

Weather reports and forecasts

Describe how to select an appropriate height/attitude to fly

the route. Measure the true track and calculate magnetic

Lost procedures

headings and groundspeed. Select suitable checkpoints

Radio procedures

and measure distances. Calculate times between

Publications

checkpoints and total time for the flight. Calculate fuel

Helicopter documents

usage for each leg and total fuel required for the whole flight

including the required reserves. Obtain the frequencies of

Flight plans/notifications

the ATC units to be used en route, including any Nav aids

Minimum equipment to be carried on board

and note this on the planning sheet. Check the flight plan for

gross or obvious errors. Complete a flight planning log

transferring relevant details as required on to the map for

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

easy reference.

Aim

The following aspects should be taken into consideration

The aim is for the student to learn how to plan and conduct

for planning a cross country flight (the MATED brief is used

a navigational flight

as an illustration of a useful aide memoir):

Review

Exercise 6: Straight and level

Met - Interpretation of weather information by use of the

Exercise 7: Climbing

appropriate significant weather charts, TAFs, METARS,

Exercise 8: Descending

observation etc for the time period and route of the flight.

Ascertain the suitability of the en route weather and

Exercise 9: Turning

winds to be used for flight planning purposes . Identify

Motivation

any hazards and threats and the mitigations to put in place

to overcome them.

As part of the course a pilot has to complete a solo cross

country flight of 100nm with full stop landings at two

Aircraft- the suitability of the aircraft for the flight to

aerodromes different from the aerodrome of landing. The ability

include; fuel planning, AUM, CoG, ( take off and landing),

to navigate is also required to be demonstrated in Section 3 of

Aircraft documentation including; ARC/ Maintenance

the Licence Skill Test.

requirements, insurance, CofA, Registration, MEL, other

NAA legal requirements.

• Lookout

•

W/V

•

Helicopter limitations

Flight Planning

•

Legal aspects

Common

•

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Teaching Points

Flight Planning

•

The major fault in both Mental DR and map reading is

The principles used in visual navigation are part of the PPL

calculating in terms of fixed wind speeds and forgetting the

Theoretical Knowledge syllabus and these should be

relative slowness of the helicopter, and the greater effect of

covered prior to this lesson.

wind.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 134

aTc - NOTAMs for departure/en-route/destination/

Consider the following items:

alternate airfields/LS Airfield information, plates, flight

High ground/obstructions - are you near any?

plan where appropriate, airspace restrictions, controlled

Entering controlled airspace - are you close?

airspace, prohibited and danger areas Navigational aids,

Limited experience, low time or student pilot - let them

radio frequencies and services available. Lost/diversion

know

plan.

PAN call in good time - don't leave it too late

Exercise - The navigation plan! Route to be flown, maps

and charts of appropriate scales, turning points, true

Met conditions - is the weather/daylight deteriorating?

track, wind corrections, magnetic headings to be flown,

Endurance - fuel remaining; is it getting low?

airspeed / groundspeed route times. Altitudes to be

flown; minimum altitude, the safety altitude for the leg or

If in doubt consider a precautionary landing whilst

route. Fuel planning including fuel consumption, trip fuel,

fuel/weather/daylight/terrain permits you to do so!

diversion fuel, minimum land fuel, total fuel required,

En-route Diversion

Duties - if operating multi-crew; crew brief. FI/student

An en-route diversion may be necessary due to

division of responsibilities. Passenger brief

insufficient fuel to reach your destination, deteriorating

weather , passenger request, aircraft malfunctions etc.

Explain the importance of phases of flight:

In such cases it may be advisable to orbit around a known

position, draw a line on your chart or follow a line feature

Pre Departure procedures

to your alternate, estimate the distance and time to the

Filing a flight plan, booking out, ATIS /ATC liaison, airfield

alternate and fuel required. Check the terrain, hazards and

procedures, pressure settings. Organising cockpit

airspace along the proposed route using GNSS and radio

management, including organisation of the cockpit

navigation aids to assist.

including maps, flight log , aircraft checklist, pens,

passenger briefing, safety equipment etc

Degraded Visual Environment (DVE)

Departure/En route

Explain that if you encounter a deteriorating visual

environment (DVE) it requires a timely decision to turn

Setting heading procedure, altitude, timings/ ETAs, fuel

back, divert or land before becoming disorientated. A

calculations, instrument checks, radio calls. Maintenance

180° turn in cloud can easily become a death spiral for

of altitude/heading/speed. Making heading and ETA

those pilots not proficient in instrument flight.

corrections using 1:60 rule, drift lines, MDR. Log keeping.

Use of RT/navaids. Weather assessment / decision

Arrival and aerodrome joining procedure

making. Transiting controlled airspace .

Where available call ATC for joining instructions including

circuit direction, runway, altimeter setting, joining

Uncertain/lost procedure

direction/procedure, traffic information, helicopter

When uncertain of position the following should be

landing area.

considered:

Post Flight

Check compass heading, DI and time

Security of helicopter, refuelling, closing of flight plan,

Check steering correct heading with flight log

post-flight administration.

Calculate distance travelled since last known point - if

AIR EXERCISE

not long apply +/- 10% along track and then draw

Fly the cross-country exercise as prepared

30˚drift lines either side of track and this should be the

area you are in

Demonstrate VFR navigation/map reading techniques at

Read the map from ground to map - identify a major/

various heights and speeds and using different scale maps as

unique landmark

appropriate.

Inform ATC - ask for help

Student practice

Immediately that you confirm you are lost stay calm,

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

and remember your training

If the cloud base permits, climb to your Safety Altitude.

It is important to expose the student to as many different types

Make a note of the time if you are in contact with an

of terrain and airspace as possible and not to just train in the

ATSU, requesting assistance

local area. Therefore consideration should be given to long

navigational training flights landing away at different airfields.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 135

LESSON CHECKLIST

(d) revisions of ETA and heading:

Exercise 25a: Navigation:

(1) 10 ° line, double track and track error and

(A) flight planning:

closing angle;

(a) weather forecast and actuals;

(2) 1 in 60 rule;

(b) map selection and preparation and use;

(3) amending an ETA.

(1) choice of route:

(e) log keeping;

(2) controlled airspace, danger and prohibited

(f) use of radio;

areas;

(g) use of navaids (if fitted);

(3) safety altitudes and noise abatement

(h) minimum weather conditions for continuation of

considerations.

flight;

(i) in-flight decisions;

(1) magnetic heading(s) and time(s) en-route;

(j) transiting controlled or regulated airspace;

(2) fuel consumption;

(k) uncertainty of position procedure;

(3) mass and balance.

(l) lost procedure.

(d) flight information:

(1) NOTAMs, etc.;

(a) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace;

(2) radio frequencies;

(b) altimeter setting;

(3) selection of alternate landing sites.

(e) helicopter documentation;

(d) circuit procedures.

(f) notification of the flight:

(e) parking;

(1) pre-flight administrative procedures;

(f) security of helicopter;

(2) flight plan form (where appropriate).

(g) refuelling;

(B) departure:

(h) closing of flight plan (if appropriate);

(a) organisation of cockpit workload;

(I) post-flight administrative procedures.

(b) departure procedures:

(1) altimeter settings;

(2) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace;

(3) setting heading procedure;

(4) noting of ETAs.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 136

25b

NAVIGATION PROBLEMS AT LOW

HEIGHTS AND REDUCED VISIBILITY

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Maps/charts: symbols, scales, etc.

later stage than when operating at a higher altitude,

therefore reducing the amount of time a pilot has to react.

Mental Dead Reckoning (MDR)

Operating at low level reduces the options for a landing site

Track selection: drift lines, increments

in the case of an autorotation, forced or precautionary

Weather reports and forecasts

landing. Wind velocity at low level is susceptible to surface

Lost procedures

friction, local topography, mechanical turbulence, up and

down drafts and can be very difficult to predict.

Radio procedures

Actions in the event of encountering DVE

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Explain that a continuing significant number of accidents are

due to pilot disorientation in a DVE. Research has

Aim

demonstrated the strong relationship between pilot

For the student to learn how to navigate at low level in

experience, helicopter handling characteristics and

reduced visibility.

available visual cues. Whilst most pilots receive limited

basic training in 'flight with sole reference to instruments',

Review

the competence in this skill can deteriorate rapidly and

Exercise 25a: Navigation

therefore cannot be relied upon to safely extricate the

unprepared pilot from an inadvertent IMC situation.

Motivation

Analysis indicates that any, or a combination of, the

It is important that a student understands the difficulty of

following three scenarios could result in a serious accident:

navigating at low level and the actions to be undertaken in the

event of encountering DVE.

Loss of control when attempting a manoeuvre to avoid a

Airmanship / TEM

region of impaired visibility, i.e. backtracking, climbing

• Lookout

above or descending below the DVE.

Spatial disorientation or loss of control when transferring

•

W/V

to instrument flight following an inadvertent encounter

Helicopter limitations

•

with IMC.

Flight Planning

•

Loss of situational awareness resulting in controlled flight

Legal aspects

into terrain/sea/obstacles or a mid air collision.

•

Teaching Points

Actions before descending

Explain that prior to descending to low level it ts important

to ensure that the aircraft is descending into a clear open

area free of obstacles especially pylons and wires. It is

advisable to reduce the speed to descend at Vy and conduct

a form of checks similar to the pre-land checks including

fuel, radio calls, engine temperature and pressures

(carburettor heat) wind and altimeter setting.

Hazards and Difficulty of operating at low level

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Describe how, when operating at low level, the pilot’s visual

range is reduced and the apparent groundspeed is

increased. Therefore map reading becomes more difficult.

Over-emphasis on map details tends to confuse a student

•

With the reduction of visual range the acquisition of

pilot.

obstacles, other aircraft and birds can happen at a much

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 138

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Explain that if a pilot experiences DVE other risk factors may

come into play:

During the low flying, stress the changes in visual cues and (if

A low level of ambient light.

you are using a large-scale map) the speed at which the

Poor defined or no visual horizon.

helicopter moves over the map. If possible, expose the student

to different scales of map, particularly 1:500,000 and

Few, if any, visual cues from the ground plane.

1:250,000.

Changes of speed and height are not perceivable.

Students should have had some exposure to Exercise 14c

Reducing height does not improve the perception of the

Emergency Procedures, Exercise 27: Sloping Ground and

horizon or cues on the ground.

Exercise 29: Confined Areas before being sent on the first solo

The view from the cockpit is obscured due to

cross-country. This is to ensure that they are capable of landing

precipitation/misting.

at a suitable site in the event they have to make a precautionary

or emergency landing.

The cloud base is lowering causing an unintended

descent to retain similar forward visual cues.

Enhanced ground instruction in the principles of threat and error

management, weather interpretation, planning and route

Serious consideration should be given to terminating

assessment, decision making on encountering DVE including

reversing course or conducting a precautionary landing should

flight and conducting a safe, controlled precautionary

be given prior to the flight exercise.

Precautionary Landing

Wherever possible, flight simulation should be used to

demonstrate to student pilots the effects of flight into DVE and

It should be noted that a 'precautionary' or 'forced' landing

to enhance their understanding and need for avoidance of this

that is made in response to an aircraft malfunction/

potentially fatal flight regime.

emergency or deteriorating weather, will invariably be an

'off airfield' landing. Therefore the techniques prescribed

for the recce, approach and departure in Exercise 14 & 29

should be utilised even if in an abbreviated format.

AIR EXERCISE

Demonstrate a descent and a navigational flight at low level

Student practice.

Demonstrate a precautionary landing simulating

encountering DVE.

Student practice.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 25b: Navigation problems at low heights and in

reduced visibility:

(A) actions before descending;

(B) hazards (for example obstacles and other aircraft);

(D) effects of wind and turbulence;

(E) avoidance of noise sensitive areas;

(F) actions in the event of encountering DVE;

(G) decision to divert or conduct precautionary landing;

(H) bad weather circuit and landing;

(I) appropriate procedures and choice of landing area;

(J) precautionary landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 139

25c

RADIO NAVIGATION

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

GNSS

Maps/charts: symbols, scales, etc.

(a)

selection of waypoints;

Track selection: drift lines, increments

(b) to or from indications and orientation;

Weather reports and forecasts

Radio procedures

GNSS operation

(d) hazards of over-reliance on the use of GNSS in the

continuation of flight in DVE.

VOR/ADF NDB/VHF DF

Use of VHF Omni Range:

Use of en-route terminal radar

(a)

availability, AIP and frequencies;

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

(b) selection and identification;

Aim

The aim is for the student to learn how to navigate by use of

(d) to or from indications and orientation;

radio navigation aids.

(e) determination of radial;

Review

(f)

intercepting and maintaining a radial;

The principles of the operation of radio navigational aids are part

(g) VOR passage;

of the PPL Theoretical Knowledge syllabus and this should be

covered prior to this lesson

(h)

obtaining a fix from two VORs.

Motivation

Use of ADF NDB:

It is important that a student understands the availability,

(a)

availability, AIP and frequencies;

use and limitations of radio navigational aids to be able to utilise

them.

(b)

selection and identification;

Airmanship / TEM

(c)

orientation relative to the beacon;

(d) homing.

• Airmanship/TEM

Use of VHF/DF:

•

Lookout

W/V

(a)

availability, AIP and frequencies;

•

Helicopter limitations

(b)

RTF procedures and ATC liaison;

•

Flight Planning

•

NOTAMs

•

Teaching Points

The principles of the operation of radio navigational aids are part

of the PPL Theoretical Knowledge syllabus and this should be

covered prior to this lesson. The user guide for the specific

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

navigational aids fitted to the aircraft will explain the operation

of the individual instrument to be used. If possible the operation

of radio navigation aids should be practised either by use of an

At low levels the wind direction can be affected considerably

•

FNPT, computer based training or with the aircraft on the

by terrain and large errors may occur if a constant check is

ground prior to getting airborne. Once the student is familiar

not kept on the wind.

with the operation of the aid the following elements should be

Aviate - Navigate - Communicate.

•

demonstrated and practised in the air:

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 140

Use of en -route terminal radar:

availability and AIP;

(a)

procedures and ATC liaison;

(b)

pilot’s responsibilities;

(c)

(d)

secondary surveillance radar (if transponder fitted):

(1)

transponders;

(2)

code selection;

(3) interrogation and reply.

Use of DME:

(a) station selection and identification;

LESSON CHECKLIST

(b) modes of operation: distance, groundspeed and time to

Exercise 25c: Radio navigation:

run.

(A) use of GNSS:

(a) selection of waypoints;

AIR EXERCISE

(b) to or from indications and orientation;

Demonstrate the use of radio navigational aids

Student practice.

(d) hazards of over-reliance on the use of GNSS in

the continuation of flight in DVE.

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

(B) use of VHF omni range:

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

Enhanced ground instruction in the principles of threat and error

(b) selection and identification;

management, weather interpretation, planning and route

assessment, decision making on encountering DVE including

(d) to or from indications and orientation;

reversing course or conducting a precautionary landing should

(e) CDI;

be given prior to the flight exercise.

(f) determination of radial;

Wherever possible, flight simulation or computer based training

(g) intercepting and maintaining a radial;

should be used initially to demonstrate and give the student

(h) VOR passage;

practice of the principles and operation in the use of radio

(i) obtaining a fix from two VORs.

navigation equipment.

Wherever possible, flight simulation should be used to

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

demonstrate to student pilots the effects of flight into DVE and

(b) selection and identification;

to enhance their understanding and need for avoidance of this

potentially fatal flight regime.

(d) homing.

(D) use of VHF/DF:

(a) availability, AIP and frequencies;

(b) RTF procedures and ATC liaison;

(E) use of en-route or terminal radar:

(a) availability and AIP;

(b) procedures and ATC liaison;

(d) secondary surveillance radar

(if transponder fitted):

(1) transponders;

(2) code selection;

(3) interrogation and reply.

(F) use of DME:

(a) station selection and identification;

(b) modes of operation: distance, groundspeed

and time to run.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 141

ADVANCED TAKE-OFF, LANDINGS AND

TRANSITIONS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Teaching Points

Flight guide:

Landing and take off out of wind

Limitations

Describe the effects of hovering/ transitioning out of wind

Load and density altitude performance charts

including the difference in ground effect, translational lift

Vortex ring

and directional stability.

Over-pitching - Rotor Stall

Describe the technique for taking off when out of wind

as follows:

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Tilt the disc towards the relative wind to avoid the

Aim

tendency to roll away from the wind and drift down wind.

For the student to learn additional take-off and landing techniques

As the helicopter leaves the ground, reposition the cyclic

to maintain ground position.

Review

Describe the technique for landing out of wind as follows:

Exercise 12: Take-off and Landing

From a steady accurate hover, lower the helicopter on to

Exercises 13 & 23: Transitions

the ground avoiding over-controlling. The skid that is likely

Motivation

to touch the ground first is dependent on wind

direction,CoG and direction of rotation of rotor blades.

Although the techniques learned in Exercises 12, 13 and 23 are

When on the ground the rotor disc should be maintained

those that should continue to be used under optimum

level with cyclic as the collective lever is lowered. Over-

conditions, situations such as high all-up weight, high density

controlling on the pedals may cause large power

altitude, unfavourable wind conditions or obstacles close to the

fluctuations.

flight path may dictate the use of advanced techniques for a

take-off, transition to the climb, approach and landing. Another

Running take-off

practical application is in conditions of restricted visibility, such

Explain that this is not a conventional take off for a

as snow, dust or sand.

helicopter especially one with a skidded undercarriage.

The take off path must be level, firm and clear of

Airmanship / TEM

obstacles as even slight up slope, soft ground or long

Lookout: obstacles

•

grass will require a higher power setting.

•

Helicopter limitations

Describe the technique for a running take off as follows:

W/V

•

Raise the collective lever until the aircraft is light on the

Avoid Curve

skids and gently move the cyclic forward to achieve

•

acceleration.

Landing Site Recce

•

Size - is it large enough?

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Shape - is the Ls aligned with the wind/direction of approach?

Surrounds - are there any obstacles on the approach/

•

Slow to appreciate dangers of down wind approach i.e.-

overshoot?

Vortex Ring Condition: High Rates of Descent, Low

Slope - is the LS flat?

Airspeed, Possible loss of yaw control.

Exceeding maximum power available.

Surface - is the surface firm/even?

•

Misjudging height and distances required.

•

Failure to recover in the event of reaching Cyclic limits /

•

control stops.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 142

As the speed increases allow the aircraft to fly off the

Zero speed landing

ground. Care must be exercised as the helicopter

Explain that this type of landing is useful in conditions where

breaks contact with the ground as there can be a

it is not desirable to approach to a hover, such as in dust,

tendency for the helicopter to pitch 'nose down' and

powdery snow or turbulence. It requires less power than a

this must be counteracted with cyclic control.

normal approach to a hover but more power than a running

landing.

Cushion creep take-off

Describe the technique for carrying out a zero speed landing

Point out that this type of departure is very economical in

as follows:

power required, since it involves making maximum use of

the ground cushion until translational lift has been acquired.

Approach the selected landing spot as required.

It does, however, require a relatively flat departure path that

is free of obstacles. This technique can be effective in

When the approach is almost completed, and

circumstances where it is not possible to take off into wind.

groundspeed is close to zero, anticipate loss of

translational lift by applying sufficient power to minimise

Describe the technique for carrying out a cushion take-off,

the rate of descent.

as follows:

Let the helicopter sink gently through the cushion on to

Carry out a hover check at a low hover in maximum

the ground.

ground effect facing into wind.

Point out that this type of landing requires careful prior

Lookout

confirmation that the selected spot is suitable for landing.

Initiate slow forward movement with cyclic.

Running landing

Apply sufficient power to prevent sink.

Explain that this type of landing can be used in similar

Maintain gentle acceleration, staying in maximum ground

conditions as the zero speed landing. Although it requires

effect.

less power to perform and is easier to control the directional

As the ground effect is lost and translational lift is

stability as translational lift is maintained throughout the

acquired, select climb power and airspeed.

approach, a large, flat, smooth surface such as a runway is

essential.

Stress that, in order for this type of take-off to be

Describe the technique for carrying out a run-on landing, as

effective, all control movements must be gentle and

follows:

Vertical take-off over obstacles

Approach the selected landing area as required.

Explain that this type of departure should only be

As the approach is completed, run on at slow walking

considered if there is no reasonable alternative as the

pace maintaining translational lift throughout.

power requirement is greater and the helicopter will be

operating in the avoid curve.

Apply sufficient power to cushion the landing.

Describe the technique for carrying out a vertical or

After landing, maintain the cyclic and collective positions

towering take-off, as follows:

until forward movement stops. Maintain heading

throughout with pedals.

Establish a low hover into wind and complete a power

Approaches

check and take-off checks.

Explain that in certain conditions it is sometimes necessary

Apply sufficient power to initiate and maintain a gentle

to approach to land at an angle other than standard, as

vertical climb.

follows:

Ensure that the climb is vertical by reference to obstacles

Steep approach

ahead and to the side of the helicopter.

This approach is for avoiding obstacles on the final

As the transition point is reached, check for a positive rate

approach path. Point out that airspeed will be lower than

of climb, the aircraft is clear of the obstacles and that

normal and that more power will be required.

there is still sufficient power margin for the transition.

Then ease the cyclic forward so that the helicopter

Always prepare for a zero speed landing.

transitions and continues to climb.

Stress the need to maintain airspeed >30kts for as long as

As translational lift is attained, select a climb attitude and

possible owing to the danger of a vortex ring state

apply climb power.

occurring or of insufficient power to prevent a hard

landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 143

Shallow approach

A go around must be considered if any of the following are

experienced:

Explain to the student that a shallow approach requires

less power than a standard or steep approach. It should be

•

directional stability becomes difficult or the rear cyclic

employed when the approach path is free from obstacles

stop is reached.

and where conditions limit the power available, or where

•

excessive power is required to control the

maximum power is available but inadequate for the use of

approach.

standard techniques.

the RoD is > 300 fpm with speed less than 30kts.

Stress that care should be taken to avoid making the

•

approach angle too shallow, i.e. flat. This requires more

Go around

power and can lead to problems in decelerating to a hover

Explain that throughout the approach to the hover the pilot

because of the possibility of the tail striking the ground.

must be prepared to conduct a 'go-around' should the

aircraft RoD, power requirement, or speed become

Crosswind and downwind transitions

excessive.

Explain that wherever possible crosswind and downwind

Discuss the technique to be employed for the go-around

transitions should be avoided as they require more power,

and why it is important to ensure airspeed is >30kts before

they can be difficult to control and require a larger clear take

power is applied to arrest the RoD and establish the climb.

off/landing area.

Describe the techniques for a downwind transition from the

AIR EXERCISE

hover as follows:

Review the standard take off and landing techniques then

Cushion transition is the preferred technique if a long

demonstrate take offs and landings out of wind.

open flat take-off area is available. From a low hover

Student practice

gently accelerate forward using power to maintain height.

When translational lift is obtained and positive airspeed

Review normal transition to and from the hover including an LS

indicated on the ASI the maximum power available

recce.

should be used to establish best rate of speed. If there are

Student practice

obstacles present then the best angle of climb speed

Demonstrate the following transitions:

should be used.

Running take-off

Vertical transition should only be used if the take off path

Cushion creep take-off

does not permit a cushion transition and HOGE

Vertical take-off

performance has been established. It is conducted from

the low hover and a vertical climb is established. When

Running landing

above the obstacle height and before the vertical climb

Zero speed landing

decreases apply gentle forward cyclic to achieve

Cross wind/downwind takeoff/landing

translation lift avoiding loss of height. Climb away using

Steep approach

best rate or angle of climb as appropriate.

Go-around

Explain the techniques for the downwind transition to the

Student practice

hover as follows:

Fly the circuit at an appropriate height extending the

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

'into wind' leg for about twice the normal length as the

Initially this exercise should ideally be taught on a flat, firm, level

aircraft will drift towards the landing site when turning on

open area free from obstacles such as an airfield. in order that

to base/final legs. On finals the speed should be

the best rate of climb and a normal approach can be used. Only

decreased to approx 30-40kts dependent on height. A

when proficient in the techniques should obstacles be

slightly shallow constant angle approach should be flown

introduced to demonstrate best angle of climb, vertical take off

with a RoD <300 fpm. Power required will be higher than

and steep approaches.

normal and direction stability difficult to control, so all

control movements should be kept to a minimum. A low

Once a technique has been demonstrated and the student

hover should be established with the minimum possible

practised it, then the exercises can be combined into a circuit

attitude change as the tail will be close to the ground.

practising the various transitions to and from the hover.

The techniques in this exercise are further practised using

limited power in Exercise 28.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 144

SLOPING GROUND

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Teaching Points

Dynamic /Static rollover

Explain that sloping ground techniques involve gentle and

Flight guide: Limitations

cautious control movements. The techniques used for

sloping ground landing are all used for landing on all even

Tail rotor drift and roll

ground or when the pilot is unsure of the firmness of the

Ground effect

ground e.g. sandy, packed snow, wet/marshy, muddy

conditions.

Ground resonance

Explain that sloping ground operations can be divided into four

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

phases:

Aim

reconnaissance

For the student to learn procedures and techniques for

planning/manoeuvring

operating from sloping ground

landing

Review

take-off.

Exercise 12: Take-off and landing

Reconnaissance:

Exercise 26 Advanced take-offs and landings

Explain that all landing surfaces require careful attention

Motivation

during landing and take-off. Extra care must be taken where

Describe the helicopter’s ability to operate from unprepared

the surface is likely to be soft, slippery, or where there are

surfaces and sloping ground. Explain that pilots are frequently

obstacles such as rocks or tree stumps.

required to use this ability.

Describe how cross-slope landing performance is affected

Airmanship / TEM

by cyclic control limitations and the fact that one skid hangs

lower than the other at the hover.

•

LS recce

Explain how it is possible to reach control stops on a slope

especially when out of wind or close to CoG.

Size - is the slope big enough to land the helicopter

ensuring blade/ tail clearance?

Explain that landing into wind is always desirable for

helicopter handling, but that there are often occasions

Shape - the shape of the slope in relation to the wind may

when the pilot must ‘trade-off’ wind and slope in order to

dictate direction of landing.

get the best compromise between the ground and

Surrounds - check area free of obstacles, FOD, persons.

helicopter limitations.

Slope - does the slope look to be within the limits of the

Explain the effect of a slope on ground effect and the power

aircraft/capabilities of the pilot?

required to maintain the hover.

Surface - is the surface firm and not slippery (wet grass)?

Point out that, in view of the above, it is vital to make a

careful assessment of the ground before attempting to

land.

• W/V

• Helicopter limitations

Common

• Escape path

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

• Failure to maintain disc attitude.

•

Jerky control movements.

•

Failure to maintain heading and yaw during power changes.

•

Allowing aircraft to roll with one skid in contact with the

ground and rapidly reducing / raising collective lever.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 146

Manoeuvring

Take-off

Describe how to take off from sloping ground, as follows:

Point out that the tail assembly is particularly vulnerable

during sloping ground operations. Pilots should be

Ensure that the RPM is at the take-off setting.

constantly aware of the tail rotor when making hovering

Carefully position the cyclic into the slope so that the disc

turns which should, whenever possible, always be made

by turning the tail away from a slope and not towards a

is horizontal and gently raise the collective maintaining

slope, when landing upslope in conditions where the

the disc position with cyclic so that the helicopter breaks

contact with the ground vertically. Stress the vital

ground levels out behind the helicopter, or when landing

downslope.

importance of avoiding any excessive lateral movement.

Prevent yaw throughout.

Landing

Considerations

Describe the landing performance and limitations of the

type of training helicopter being used.

Point out the dangers of turning rotor blades to persons in

the close vicinity of the helicopter in this type of operation,

Describe how to land on sloping ground, with left/right skid

up slope as follows:

and in particular, to avoid embarking and disembarking

passengers located uphill of the helicopter due to the

Establish a steady hover.

reduced main rotor tip clearance above the ground. Explain

that it is the pilot’s duty to brief passengers and ground

Lower the collective gently until the upslope skid

crew in this regard, whenever possible.

contacts the ground.

Review the dangers of dynamic/static rollover and the need

Continue lowering the collective, at the same time

to ensure before take-off that the helicopter is within C of G

moving the cyclic gently towards the slope keeping the

limits and that the landing gear is clear of snags and

disc horizontal to prevent lateral movement of the

obstacles. Talk through the immediate action required in the

helicopter.

event conditions likely to lead to dynamic rollover are

When both skids are in full contact with the ground,

encountered, ensuring that this is fully understood by the

smoothly lower the collective until it is fully down.

student as intervention time is minimal.

Prevent yaw throughout.

When certain the helicopter will not slide, centre the

AIR EXERCISE

cyclic.

Select an area of sloping ground well within the helicopter’s

Point out the importance of maintaining flying RPM until

limits and demonstrate reconnaissance of, and manoeuvring

the collective is fully down.

over, the intended landing area.

Point out the need for smooth and accurate control

Student practice

movements and for not overcontrolling. Explain that

Demonstrate right and left skid up slope landings, landing in

with one side of the landing gear in contact with the

both directions, pointing out the difference in helicopter

ground it is possible to induce a rate of roll that is

performance where appropriate.

impossible to counteract with opposite cyclic.

Student practice

Describe the signs that tell you cyclic control limits are

being reached because of excessive slope. Explain that

Demonstrate a nose up slope landing.

when they start to occur, or if the helicopter starts to

Student practice

slide, the helicopter should be brought smoothly back to

Select an area of sloping ground that is close to the helicopter’s

the hover and landed elsewhere.

limits and demonstrate landings and take-offs.

Describe how to land on sloping ground with the

Student practice

aircraft nose up the slope as follows:

Select an area of sloping ground that is beyond the helicopter’s

limits and demonstrate the indications that the limits are being

The technique for landing nose upslope is the same

approached, and the methods of aborting the landing.

as that above. The first contact will be made with the

Student practice

front of the skids and the cyclic is moved forward to

Demonstrate wind/slope trade-off.

keep the disc level as the collective is lowered.

Student practice of reconnaissance and selection of landing

Caution should be exercised as both wheeled and

skidded aircraft are prone to sliding down the slope

points.

when conducting a nose up slope landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 147

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

The performance and techniques involved with different types

of helicopter on sloping ground vary. This exercise should be

tailored to meet the performance of the training helicopter.

(1)

Students tend to be very tense when introduced to

sloping ground operations. They will be likely to

overcontrol and will tire quickly. It is vital that the

student is proficient at hovering and standard take-offs

and landings before this exercise is introduced.

Students will tend to look at the ground close to the

(2)

helicopter. Overcontrolling frequently results, and it will

often be necessary to remind the student to raise his or

her eyes and use the horizon as a datum.

When students are proficient, let them make the

(3)

decision where to land so as to judge their own ability to

evaluate slopes.

Start the student on `beginners slopes’ and gradually

(4)

increase the severity as proficiency improves.

Ensure that the student is shown some slopes that are

(5)

a mix of cross slope and up/down slope, so that the

helicopter has to be landed diagonally on the slope.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 27: Sloping ground:

(A) limitations and assessing slope angle;

(B) wind and slope relationship: blade and control stops;

(D) ground effect on slope and power required;

(E) right skid up slope;

(F) left skid up slope;

(G) nose up slope;

(H) avoidance of dynamic roll over, dangers of soft

ground and sideways movement on touchdown;

(I) danger of striking main or tail rotor by harsh control

movement near ground.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 148

LIMITED POWER

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

The In-Flight Power Check.

Flight guide

The helicopter should be flown straight and level, normally

Limitations

at the recommended Vy speed, ideally within 500ft AGL of

the landing site, in smooth air conditions. The power

Load and density altitude performance charts

required should then be noted. The collective lever can then

Power curve

be raised to the maximum power available (ensuring that

Vortex Ring

none of the aircraft limits is exceeded) and note the power

achieved. The difference between the 2 readings is the

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

power able to be used to conduct a landing. The landing

capabilities of a piston engine helicopter are typically as

Aim

listed below. However they may differ for each type and

should be verified before use:

For the student to learn how to transition, to and from the hover,

when the power is limited.

<3 inches MAP available - a running landing is required.

Review

4 inches MAP available - a zero speed may be conducted

Exercise 26 Advanced Take-off, Landing and Transitions.

dependent on w/v and surface.

Motivation

5 inches MAP available - approach to a low hover.

Helicopter pilots may wish to operate at maximum all up mass,

6 inches MAP available - HOGE may be possible.

or, in ambient conditions, where the power margin available

7 inches MAP available - a vertical descent from HOGE

may be limited, or land an aircraft safely with a malfunction that

may be possible.

limits the power available. To do this the techniques previously

learned in Exercise 26 can be utilised. It should be stressed to

the student that these techniques should not be used for a take

off with an aircraft that has a malfunction or is operating at

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

above all up mass.

Airmanship / TEM

•

Take-off:

•

Lookout

•

Pulling cyclic aft as aircraft leaves ground.

•

Incorrect use of collective lever, e.g. jerky movements.

W/V

•

Landing site recce

•

Large yaw control movements.

•

Helicopter limitations

•

Exceeding or not using simulated power.

•

Power Checks

Inaccurate RPM control.

•

In a towering take-off, continuing the vertical climb too long

•

Teaching Points

before starting the transition.

Power Checks

Hover and/or Landing:

•

Explain that in conditions where it is suspected the power

Inaccurate Power Check.

may be limited it is essential to establish the margin

•

Allowing speed to fall too early so using up all the power

between power available and power required to take-off or

•

available too soon.

land before attempting the manoeuvre. This can be

achieved by the following power check procedures:

Running on at too high a speed without using all the power

• available.

Not maintaining a constant angle of approach.

•

Under/overshooting a selected landing point.

•

Not making a gradual transition.

•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 150

The Take-Off Power Check.

AIR EXERCISE

The aircraft should be established in an IGE hover and the

Demonstrate the take-off power and the in-flight power checks.

power required noted. The maximum power available can

be calculated and corrected for temperature and altitude.

Student practice

The power margin able to be used for take-off is established

Review the standard take off and landing techniques then

by subtracting the 2 figures.

demonstrate take offs and landings out of wind.

Student practice

The take-off capabilities of a piston engine helicopter are

typically as listed below. However they may differ for each

Review normal transition to and from the hover including an LS

type and should be verified before use:

recce.

Student practice

<½ inch MAP in hand - a running take -off is required

Demonstrate the following transitions with a power limit set by

½ inch MAP in hand - a cushion creep may be achievable

the instructor:

2 inches MAP in hand - a vertical take -off over obstacles

Running take-off

The following exercises should be demonstrated and

practised with a power limit set by the instructor utilising

Cushion creep take-off

the techniques previously taught in Exercise 26

Vertical take-off

Running take-off

Running landing

Cushion creep take-off

Zero speed landing

Vertical take-off over obstacles

Cross wind/downwind takeoff/landing

Running landing

Steep approach

Go-around

Zero speed landing

Approach to low hover

Student practise

Approach to hover OGE

Steep Approach

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Go around.

Initially this exercise should ideally be taught on a flat, firm, level

open area free from obstacles, such as an airfield, in order that

the best rate of climb and a normal approach can be used. Only

when proficient in the techniques should obstacles be

introduced to demonstrate best angle of climb, vertical take-off

and steep approaches.

If the student's performance is initially degraded because they

are concentrating on achieving the power limit, they should

practise the technique without a power limit just using as little

power as possible and then refine the technique.

Once a technique has been demonstrated and the student

practised it, then the exercises can be combined into a circuit

practising the various transitions to and from the hover.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 151

CONFINED AREAS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Recirculation

Height/Velocity Graph Considerations

Dynamic Rollover

Legal Aspects including low flying and landing permissions

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Aim

For a student to learn the procedures and techniques for

conducting a recce, an approach, manoeuvring within, and

departing from a confined area.

Review

Exercise 18: Hover OGE and Vortex Ring

Exercise 26: Advanced Take-offs and Landings

Exercise 27: Sloping ground.

Motivation

The helicopter’s ability to approach, manoeuvre, land and take-off

Common

from an off airfield Landing Site (LS) or unprepared Landing Site is

Errors

COMMON ERRORS

one of the most important aspects of helicopter operations. Pilots

will want at some stage to fly passengers to various landing sites

•

Approach and Landing:

such as hotels, golf courses, sporting venues, etc. Whilst all

these sites can vary in their dimensions, approaches, hazards,

•

Not appreciating wind effect on rates of descent, height and

elevation, and location, the same basic principles should be

speed.

employed. ALS that has obstructions that require a steeper than

Impatience during approach and landing.

•

normal approach, where the manoeuvring space in the ground

Not maintaining a safe clearance from obstacles.

cushion is limited, or whenever obstructions force a steeper than

•

normal climb-out angle is often defined as 'Confined Area'.

Over-controlling with cyclic and collective lever with large

•

Airmanship / TEM

yaw pedal movements.

Not using sloping ground technique on landing.

•

Lookout

Take-off:

•

W/V

A student will take off and attempt the vertical climb from a

•

high hover and thus has less power available to overcome

•

Recce

inertia and climb.

Vortex Ring

•

Not making full use of the length of the clearing, and not

LTE

•

selecting the best exit path.

Power Checks

•

Attempting to "tower" out of too small a clearing or when the

•

aircraft's performance is in doubt.

Teaching Points

If the collective lever is raised excessively overpitching will

Describe the different stages of locating, conducting the recce/

result and rpm can only be regained by lowering the lever.

•

approach/ manoeuvring and the departure from a confined

There is a marked tendency for students to attempt to climb

• over the approaching obstacle by moving the cyclic aft. This

should be resisted.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 154

Locating the LS

Explain the different types of recce that can be flown as follows:

Explain it is unlikely that the LS will be marked or obvious

Orbital - This is normally the easiest technique to fly. It

and consequently it may be difficult to identify from the air.

involves flying an orbit around the landing site, usually with

Therefore it may be necessary to employ some of the

the landing site on the 'pilot's side' therefore allowing

following techniques to make sure you land in the right

maximum visibility of the site. However it requires the pilot

place - it should be noted that any co-ordinates given to the

to identify safe precautionary landing sites as he flies the

pilot should be double checked before use!

recce around the LS in case of engine failure. It can be

difficult to fly accurately around a very small site or in strong

Passengers - The passenger may be familiar with the

wind conditions.

destination.

Fly by - If it is not possible to fly an orbital recce safely all

Maps - Larger scale maps will have individual buildings and

around the LS (e.g. if the terrain on one side is unsuitable for

fields marked.

an emergency landing) it may be possible to fly past the LS

GPS - GPS can be accurate down to 100 m. However they

over a suitable area - ideally with the LS on the pilot's side to

are unlikely to identify an individual LS.

complete the recce elements. It may be then necessary to

reposition for a second or third 'fly by' which can be

Photographs - A regularly used site may have a photograph

achieved by flying the downwind elements away from the

in a brochure or an LS directory.

LS over terrain more suitable for an emergency landing.

Satellite Imagery - A satellite generated picture has the

Hover - As a last resort it may be possible to bring the

advantage of giving a plan view from the air.

helicopter to an 'out of ground effect' high hover to recce

Directory - More commonly used sites can be found in a

the LS.

published LS Directory.

However this technique requires training and skilful

Other pilots - Speaking to a pilot who has previous been to

handling by the pilot as it requires an increased

an LS.

awareness of power margins, avoid curve/height

Markers - An LS may have an 'H', helipad or a windsock

velocity diagram, wind velocity, escape routes, prior

indicating the location

identification of an appropriate emergency landing site

in the event of an engine failure while in the high hover.

The recce of a confined area

Explain an airborne recce of an LS is required, even if the

Once a pilot is competent at conducting an LS recce it

site has been previously used, to assess the suitability of

should be possible to obtain all the necessary information

the site for the individual pilot/aircraft capability, the given

from a safe height in as few orbits as possible. However for

w/v, the best approach/departure path, and local hazards.

an inexperienced pilot or when faced with a more complex

When conducting the recce, it is necessary to minimise the

LS, it may be necessary to conduct a 'high recce' followed

noise/disturbance to the public, and also to fly at a height/

by a ‘low recce'.

speed combination that will offer the best possible chance

Explain that the recce should identify the following points (often

of a successful landing in the event of engine failure.

referred to as the 5 S's),

Therefore as a principle:

Size - Is the LS big enough for me at my experience level to

Always fly environmentally and defensively and never

get this size aircraft in and what type of approach shall be

lower or slower than is necessary!

required to fly (e.g. a large area - single angle approach, a

medium sized area - a double angle approach, or a small

Speed - The recce should be flown at a nominal speed

area - a vertical approach) and what type of take-off will I

close to Vy, but not normally slower than 40Kts or VTOSS.

decide to perform?

Height - The recce should not be flown any lower than is

Shape - What shape is the LS in relation to the wind velocity

necessary and ideally not less than 500ft AGL or the

(w/v) or direction of approach/departure?

height specified in the RFM 'avoid curve/height velocity

Surrounds - Establishing a safe area to fly over (defensively

diagram' in case of an engine failure and to avoid

and environmentally) while conducting the recce, including

unnecessary disturbance of the local population.

establishing any markers to be used for the circuit. Establish

the hazards in the immediate LS area and any forward and

lateral markers to be used in the LS to establish the centre

of the area for the manoeuvring /landing.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 155

Describe the different types of approach that may be required

Slope - Identify any perceivable slope in the LS. This is

as follows:

normally confirmed by coming to a slightly higher than

normal hover while manoeuvring the LS.

Single Angle Approach

Surface - Identify the nature of the LS surface for landing

Maintain height until touchdown point is seen.

including ground clearance.

Hold line of sight with small collective movements.

Describe how to fly a circuit as follows:

Maintain a steady, controlled ROD with power/ speed

Choose the circuit direction. Sometimes it is not possible

combination to avoid Vortex Ring and also to avoid

with the landing site on the 'pilot's side'.

excessive ROD that may require large/rapid collective

inputs to arrest the ROD.

Fly using markers, at Vy and at a height that would permit

an autorotation to a clear area in the event of an engine

In later stages reduce speed to slow apparent ground

failure.

speed.

Conduct power check (if not already conducted on the

Descend to establish a ground cushion at slightly higher

high/low recce) and verify the power margin available is

than normal hover.

sufficient for the approach/take off.

Double Angle Approach

Describe how to conduct the final approach and landing as

Initially a shallow angle may be flown to a point on the

follows:

other side of the LS until the landing area is visible.

Turn on to finals - maintaining initially Vy until the turn is

Once the touchdown point is visible the angle is

finished beware LTE. Monitor ROD/Speed/Power margin

steepened for final approach to hover.

and - beware VORTEX RING STATE. Note escape routes,

emergency landing areas, wind shear and turbulence and

Hold line of sight with small collective movements.

consider a go around using the planned overshoot path if:

Maintain a steady, controlled ROD with power/speed

•

any yaw deviation from selected approach heading

combination to avoid Vortex Ring and also to avoid

cannot be safely corrected.

excessive ROD that may require large/rapid collective

inputs to arrest the ROD.

the power margin is insufficient to continue the

•

approach safely.

In later stages reduce speed to slow apparent ground

speed.

the rate of descent becomes excessive.

•

Descend to establish a ground cushion at slightly higher

the closing speed becomes excessive (especially with

•

than normal hover.

a rear cyclic application which may indicate a downwind

component).

Vertical Approach

the airspeed falls below 30kts with an excessively high

•

Shallow approach to an out of ground effect hover over

rate of descent.

the centre of the LS. Note increased power requirement

and ensure sufficient power margin for controlled

Check again Surface, Slope, Obstruction, wires, FOD

descent.

Reduce groundspeed in final stages ensuring a safe

Descend vertically maintaining ground position by use of

clearance from obstacles.

lateral markers.

Maintain a constant angle approach, ideally to a spot ⅓ of

Maintain a steady, controlled ROD with power/ speed

the way into the area.

combination to avoid Vortex Ring and also to avoid ROD

Ensure tail clearance by use of a lateral marker if required.

that may require large/rapid collective inputs to arrest the

Establish slightly higher than normal hover while checking

ROD.

surface and slope.

Descend to establish a ground cushion at slightly higher

Land using sloping ground technique.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 156

Confirm or reselect take-off path.

Describe how to manoeuvre within a confined area as follows:

Explain due to danger of blade strike/tail strike/FOD,

Reposition within area if required.

manoeuvring within an LS should only be conducted when

Select forward and lateral markers as appropriate.

it is entirely necessary to do so. If it is necessary to

manoeuvre, either to park the aircraft or reposition in

Lookout above - check for overhead obstructions.

preparation for a take-off, then extreme caution should be

Transition using appropriate technique.

used and it may be advisable to taxi slightly higher and

Thorough lookout on lifting from the confined area

slower than normal, keeping a good look out.

especially for any aircraft overflying/arriving/departing the

Turn About the Tail

LS.

Adopt a slightly higher than normal hover.

A normal transition using best ROC should be flown

Maintain the tail over the same ground position.

wherever possible. 'Backtracking' to the rear of the LS extra

Turn the aircraft in the direction the pilot can see (i.e., pilot’s

room may make extra distance available for the transition. If

side).

the LS is surrounded by obstacles then the vertical climb

technique should be used. However vertical climbs which

Look out throughout the turn for obstructions.

necessitate prolonged periods in the avoid curve diagram

Monitor the blade tips and be aware of overhanging

should only be used as a last resort.

branches.

Vertical Climb (to outside ground effect)

Sideward Movement (Box Turn)

Establish low hover in centre of LS.

Adopt a slightly higher than normal hover.

Identify forward and lateral markers to ensure no

Hover taxi sideward whilst maintaining heading, at least an

forwards/sideward/rearward movement during climb.

aircraft length in the direction the pilot can see (i.e., pilots

Smoothly apply power up to maximum power available and

side).

climb vertically while maintaining heading.

Spot turn through 90 degrees so that the tail is now in the

Note initial rate of climb decreases with height.

known clear area where the aircraft was positioned.

When clear of obstacles, maintaining a rate of climb, adopt a

Repeat (if required) until back on to original heading.

gentle transition forward to prevent height loss.

Look out throughout the turn for obstructions.

Monitor the blade tips and be aware of overhanging

Note: If insufficient power to maintain the climb then

branches.

descend vertically and land back inside the LS.

Describe the procedures for departing from a confined area as

AIR EXERCISE

follows:

Introduce the full confined area procedures, using an area that

Prior to the departure from an LS, a thorough 'recce' of the

is large enough to permit a constant angle approach and best

landing site should be undertaken noting hazards,

rate of climb departure.

obstacles, wind velocity, sun position and possible safe

Student practice in the same confined area

departure routes. A power margin calculation from the RFM

may be required as may a hover power check as a

Demonstrate the full procedure in smaller areas that require

confirmation to establish the exact power margin available.

double angle and vertical approaches with vertical climb

Special attention should be paid to the re-calculation of C of

departures.

G, weight and loading if passengers/ cargo have been off

Student practice in the same areas

loaded or picked up. The pilot should then establish the

Demonstrate go around techniques and aborted departures.

climb out path from the LS by asking himself 'what is the

safest way out of here?

Student practice

The sequence for takeoff and departure from an LS should

be as follows:

Pre-take-off checks.

Lookout - take-off using sloping ground techniques.

After take-off checks to include power check.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 157

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Incorrect wind w/v identification resulting in downwind

This is a comprehensive exercise that may well require more

than one session of preparatory ground instruction. If there is a

approach with hard landings and/or excessive power

shortage of suitably confined areas in the local training area,

demands.

consider planning cross-country navigation exercises to

Blade strike/tail strike on unseen obstacles/foreign object

locations farther afield where there is more scope.

damage in the LS.

When introduced to this exercise, all students will require more

Persons being hit by tail/main rotor blades.

than one orbit of the area to obtain all the information they

Damage to underside of aircraft due to landing on unseen

require. Encourage them to cut down this number as their

obstruction.

proficiency increases, until experience reduces it to a practical

minimum.

Aircraft rolling over because sloping ground technique not

used for landing/take off.

Ensure that students pick out a reference near the area so that

they maintain situational awareness.

Explain that the order in which the five 'S's are presented is

flexible, and variations are permissible, providing all points are

covered.

Usually the more different types of areas students are exposed

to for demonstration and practice, the more proficient and

confident they become in this important part of the course.

Explain the importance of looking for wires on the approach and

on the final stages of the final approach.

Point out that, depending on the wind velocity, it is permissible

to accept crosswind components to take advantage of size,

shape, and gaps in obstacles (beware wires).

Alert the student to the possibility of wind masking/shear when

descending below the height of the obstacle, normally on the

final stages of the approach.

Landing sites that are remote from an airfield offer various

challenges to the pilot and consequently have resulted in a

significant number of accidents. Unlike at an airfield there is

generally, little or no assistance in the assessment of wind,

guidance on appropriate approach directions or information on

other traffic. Hazards not normally experienced at an airfield

such as wires, obstructions, uneven landing ground, trees,

LESSON CHECKLIST

Foreign Object Damage, livestock and pedestrians are quite

likely to be found and require a heightened degree of situational

Exercise 29: Confined areas:

awareness by the pilot who needs to expect the unexpected!

(A) landing capability and performance assessment;

(B) locating landing site and assessing wind speed and

The following are common pilot errors that have occurred at off

direction;

airfield landing sites of which some have resulted in accidents:

(D) select markers;

(E) select direction and type of approach;

Loss of airspeed while turning cross/downwind during an

(F) circuit;

LS recce resulting in LTE.

(G) approach to committed point and go-around;

Turning on to final approach too high/too fast/too close

(H) approach;

leading to an excessive ROD, with low airspeed and power

(I) clearing turn;

applied resulting in Vortex Ring.

(J) landing;

(K) power check and performance assessment in and

out of ground effect;

(L) normal take-off to best angle of climb speed;

(M) vertical take-off from hover.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 158

BASIC INSTRUMENT FLYING

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Describe how due to lag and error of aircraft instruments,

Flight guide

environmental effects, and unstabilised aircraft, in order to

Limitations

obtain a complete situational awareness a regular scan of the

instruments is required to be maintained. The technique

Aircraft Instruments indications, limitations and errors

normally employed for this is known as the Selective Radial

Human Physiological

Scan. Explain that because of the fundamental requirement of

attitude control in helicopters the AI is used as the centre of the

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

scan. The scan then radiates outwards to one of the

Aim

instruments DI/ASI/VSI/altimeter for selected information then

returning to the AI before scanning the other instruments again.

The aim is to introduce the student to basic instrument flying

techniques.

Describe how to carry out the following basic manoeuvres with

sole reference to instruments;

Review

Exercise 7, 8 & 9 Climbing Descending and Turning.

Straight and Level Flight at various airspeeds/configurations

Motivation

The pitch attitude which maintains speeds in the range 40-

80kts is normally virtually the same with the AI 'horizon' just

It should be stressed that intentional flight in IMC requires an

above the 'wings'. To achieve a speed change, select

5˚

appropriately certified and equipped helicopter and the pilot to

nose down to accelerate or 5˚ nose up to decelerate, scan

hold an Instrument Rating. Therefore the aim of this lesson is to

the altimeter and VSI for level flight and adjust the

teach the pilot the correct techniques to be employed to

lever/pedals as appropriate. When the desired speed is

recover the aircraft in the event of an inadvertent entry into

achieved, reselect the original attitude and adjust the power

IMC. In this exercise instrument flight will be simulated.

again. As the speed changes it is necessary to counter the

effects of flapback with the cyclic.

Airmanship / TEM

• Lookout

Level Turns

•

W/V

Roll on the required bank (normally rate 1, maximum 30˚).

•

Helicopter limitations

Maintain the same pitch attitude. Adjust the collective to

maintain height and scan for balance. Anticipate the roll out

Teaching Points

and roll out on to desired heading. Scan the DI again and

adjust. Remember it is only possible to read the heading

Explain that enhanced ground instruction in weather

accurately with 'wings' level.

interpretation, planning, route assessment , TEM, and Decision

Making on encountering DVE, including the ability to be able to

Climbing and Climbing Turns

reverse the course and/or conduct a precautionary landing

If there is sufficient power and the climb is not prolonged,

should avoid inadvertent entry into IMC which is a potentially

there may not be any need to adjust the aircraft speed/

fatal flight regime.

attitude to achieve a nominal 500ft a minute RoC. Apply

Explain how the normal physiological sensations of vertical,

collective power while maintaining attitude and scan

balance, rotating, accelerating and decelerating are affected in

balance, VSI, altimeter.

flight and how in previous exercises the use of external

references in conjunction with the aircraft instrument

Common

indications have assisted in maintaining a flight condition.

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

However when flying with sole reference to instruments any

deviation from the required flight condition will derive solely

from the information provided by the instruments alone and

•

The student often fails to cross-refer to all his instruments.

pilots can no longer trust their senses to indicate what is going

•

Lack of Radial Scan.

on.

Over-controlling, particularly with cyclic, and failing to

•

appreciate that small attitude changes on the artificial

horizon, if sustained, have large ultimate effect.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 160

AIR EXERCISE

As approaching new height anticipate the level off by 10%

of RoC and reset pre climb power. Scan instruments as

Demonstrate all the basic instrument flying techniques.

before. If a maximum RoC is required then set 5˚ nose up to

select best RoC speed and increase power to maximum

Student practice

continuous power. Anticipate level off as before and level

off initially by selecting 5˚ nose down to reselect speed and

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

adjust power. Scan instruments as before.

When manoeuvres are to be flown by sole reference to

To turn in the climb, it is recommended to initiate the climb

instruments, the instructor should ensure that a suitable

first, then commence the turn anticipating an increase in

method of screening is used to simulate IMC for the student

power to maintain climb. As there is no requirement for a

without obscuring the instructor’s field of view.

synchronised/coordinated climb and turn, straighten out/

(Note: for the first flight, the student may need to use external

level off whichever comes first followed by the other.

references to compare the aircraft attitude in relation to the

Descending and Descending Turns

instrument indications).

There is not a minimum numbers of hours for this exercise and

To descend at the cruising speed decrease power to

it is likely to require a number of flights for the student to

achieve 500ft RoD while maintaining attitude and scan

achieve the required standard. It should be acknowledged that

balance, VSI, altimeter .To level off, anticipate by 10% RoD

IF is a skill which can fade quickly in the absence of continuous

reset pre descent cruise power and scan instruments as

practice and should therefore be revised throughout the flying

before.

course.

To turn in the descent it is recommended to initiate the turn

Wherever possible, flight simulation should be used to

first (which may set up a small RoD) then adjust the power

demonstrate to students the effects of flying into DVE and to

for 500ft RoD descent. As there is no requirement for a

enhance their understanding and need for avoidance of this

synchronised/coordinated descent and turn, straighten out/

potentially fatal flight regime.

Recovery from Unusual attitudes

An unusual attitude can occur because the normal scan has

broken down due to a relatively simple task like changing a

transponder code or it can be the result of the pilot

experiencing the 'leans'. In all cases it is fundamental

when instrument flying to believe the instruments and

disregard physiological sensations.

The recommended recovery sequence from an unusual

attitude is:

Wings level - check AI for turn/bank and level the aircraft

Attitude, - check AI for accelerative/decelerative attitude

and correct

LESSON CHECKLIST

Speed, - check ASI, if airspeed is low or excessive do not

Exercise 30: Basic instrument flight:

apply power until corrected (cross check balance because

(A) physiological sensations;

if out of balance airspeed indication may not be accurate)

(B) instrument appreciation:

Power -set power as required

(a) attitude instrument flight;

(b) instrument scan.

(D) basic manoeuvres:

(a) straight and level at various air speeds and

configurations;

(b) climbing and descending;

onto selected headings.

(E) recoveries from climbing and descending turns;

(F) recoveries from unusual attitudes.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 161

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE (2018) - page 2