HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE (2018)

FOREWORD

One of the important ingredients for a safe and viable aviation industry is

a properly resourced flying training sector. Some of these resources can

be quite fundamental. For example, an important contribution to training

is for flying instructors to have available to them a basic guide to

elementary flying training. In response to this need, the European

Helicopter Safety Team (EHEST) contacted the Australian Government

Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) which was known to have

developed a flying instructors' guide based on extensive feedback from

the helicopter training industry. CASA kindly made this guide freely

available to the EHEST team for dissemination. Some changes were

incorporated to reflect European terminology and syllabus content.

In this, the second issue of the guide, further changes have been made

to bring Part 1 in line with the requirements of AMC1 FCL.920 - Instructor

competencies and assessment and the Teaching and Learning

(Instructional Techniques) syllabus as set out in AMC1 FCL.930 - FI

Training course. In Part 2, air exercise objectives have been included for

all the flying exercises and labled lesson checklist. Other changes have

been incorporated and sections re-written as a result of suggestions

received following publication of Issue 1.

Important Notice. The EHEST was formally closed in October 2016 and

its functional activities were transferred to other teams including the

Collaborative Analysis Groups (CAGs), the European Safety Promotion

Network Rotorcraft (ESPN-R) and the RCOM, the Rotorcraft committee

of the EASA Stakeholder Advisory Body (SAB).

Readers are encouraged to provide feedback to ensure that any further

versions meet industry needs. You can email your feedback to us at:

For comments and questions contact:

SafetyPromotion@easa.europa.eu

Safety Promotion

Safety Intelligence and Performance Department

European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Postfach 10 12 53, D-50452 Cologne, Germany

Tel: +49 221 89990 2024

Fax: +49 221 89990 2524

SafetyPromotion@easa.europa.eu

This guide is for general information only.

Where the helicopter manufacturer's flight guide or pilot operating handbook, or similar document

describes techniques different from those in this guide, the manufacturer's techniques must take

Disclaimer:

precedence.

The views expressed in this leaflet are the exclusive

All EASA Approved Training Organisations (ATO) are required to maintain an operations guide.

responsibility of EHEST. All information provided is

The procedures and techniques as laid out in the ATO's operations guide must take precedence

of a general nature only and is not intended to

over the techniques referred to in this guide or in the case of a Declared Training Organisation

address the specific circumstances of any particular

(DTO), the verified training Programme.

individual or entry. Its only purpose is to provide

guidance without affecting in any way the status of

Instructors should also refer to current rules and the relevant Aeronautical Information Publication

officially adopted legislative and regulatory

(AIP) for full details of operational requirements.

provisions, including Acceptable Means of

Compliance or Guidance Materials. It is not intended

and should not be relied upon, as any form of

Notice: The information contained in this document is subject to change without notice. This guide

warranty, representation, undertaking, contractual,

has been prepared by EASA Safety Analysis and Research Department for educational purposes

or other commitment binding in law upon EHEST its

only. It should never be used for any other purpose. The contents of this document have been

participants or affiliated organisations. The adoption

adapted with permission from the Civil Aviation Authority of Australia (CASA) and Civil Aviation

of such recommendations is subject to voluntary

Authority (CAA) of New Zealand Flight Instructor Manual for Helicopters which in turn was based

commitment and engages only the responsibility of

on Department of Transport, Canada Flight Instructor Guide 2005 with permission. While use of

those who endorse these actions. Consequently,

this material has been authorised, CASA, the CAA New Zealand and the Department of Transport,

EHEST and its participants or affiliated organisations

Canada shall not be responsible for the manner in which this information has been presented. The

do not express or imply any warranty or assume any

authors also wish to acknowledge the FAA’s excellent publication - The Aviation Instructor’s

liability or responsibility for the accuracy,

Handbook - which was a valuable source of material for Part 1 of this guide.

completeness or usefulness of any information or

recommendation included in this leaflet. To the

Project Manager for Issue 1: Captain Fred Cross, Senior Examiner (Helicopters) UK CAA

extent permitted by Law, EHEST and its participants

Project Manager for Issue 2: Dr Michel Masson, Safety Promotion Coordinator, EASA

or affiliated organisations shall not be liable for any

kind of damages or other claims or demands arising

Produced for EASA and the EUROPEAN HELICOPTER ASSOCIATION (EHA) by

out of or in connection with the use, copying, or

ODEE Consulting Ltd

display of this leaflet.

Additional contributions from Balearic Helicopters, Bliss Aviation Ltd, Heli Air,

Helicentre Aviation Ltd and Vantage Aviation Ltd

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE>> PAGE I

CONTENTS

PART 1

PART 2

Teaching and Learning

Page

Air Exercises

Page

The learning process:

Familiarisation with the Helicopter

- motivation;

Emergency procedures

- perception and understanding;

- memory and its application;

Preparation for and action after flight

- habits and transfer;

Air Experience

- obstacles to learning;

- incentives to learning;

Effects of Controls

- learning methods;

Power and attitude changes

- rates of learning.

Straight and level

The teaching process:

Climbing

- elements of effective teaching;

- planning of instructional activity;

Descending

- teaching methods;

- teaching from the 'known' to the 'unknown';

Turning

- use of 'lesson plans'.

Basic Autorotation

Training philosophies:

11a Hovering

- value of a structured (approved) course of training;

11b

Hover taxiing and spot turns

- importance of a planned syllabus;

- integration of theoretical knowledge and

11c Hovering and taxiing emergencies

flight instruction;

Take-off and landing

Techniques of applied instruction

Transitions from hover to climb and approach to hover

- theoretical knowledge: classroom instruction

14a

Circuit, approach and landing

techniques:

100

- flight: airborne instruction

14b

Steep and limited power approaches and landings

102

Student evaluation and testing

14c Emergency procedures

104

- assessment of student performance:

First Solo

108

- analysis of student errors:

Sideways and backwards hover manoeuvring

110

Training programme development

Spot turns

114

- lesson planning;

- preparation;

Hover OGE and vortex ring

116

- explanation and demonstration;

- student participation and practice;

Simulated EOL

118

- evaluation.

Advanced autorotation

122

Human performance and limitations relevant to

Practice forced landing

126

flight instruction

Steep Turns

128

- physiological factors:

- pyschological factors

Transitions

130

- threat and error management.

Quick stops

132

Training administration:

25a

Navigation

134

- flight or theoretical knowledge instruction records;

25b Navigation problems at low heights and in reduced

138

- pilot's personal flying logbook;

- the flight or ground curriculum;

visibility

- study material;

25c

Radio navigation

140

- official forms;

- flight guide or equivalent document (for example

Advanced take-offs, landings and transitions

142

owner's guide or pilot's operating handbook);

- flight authorisation papers;

Sloping ground

146

- aircraft documents;

Limited power

150

- the private pilot's licence regulations.

Confined areas

154

Flight safety

Basic instrument flight

160

Checklist

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE>> PAGE II

INTRODUCTION

THE FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR

A trainer is a person who teaches a particular skill or type of

behaviour through sustained practice and instruction'. Flight

instructors are clearly trainers and their aim is to give students

good instruction and sufficient practice so that they can fly the

helicopter proficiently and safely. People usually remember

their teachers from school or elsewhere often with a great deal

of clarity. This is particularly true in flying instruction and most if

not all pilots will remember who taught them to fly. They will

recall the attributes of the instructor and more often than not

will base their future flying on that of their instructor. Being a

flying instructor is therefore extremely rewarding but it also

carries with it great responsibility.

To student helicopter pilots, their flight instructor is one of the

most important people in the world at this phase of their lives.

They expect you to have a thorough knowledge of the subject

and a sincere desire to help them. They expect you to be

__proficient aviators. They trust that flight instructors will not only

consider safety in the day-to-day progress of the course but in

their ability to judge when they will be competent for solo

operations or movement to another phase. They expect a lot

and they have every right to do so.

The responsibilities of a flight instructor are therefore large but

what about the rewards? Leaving aside financial

considerations, instructing offers opportunities for much

greater recompense. For example, the personal satisfaction

received when a slow student shows unexpected progress or

when your efforts cause a blank look to change into an

enlightened expression and the satisfaction of seeing someone

who couldn't fly a helicopter before they met you becoming a

confident and competent pilot.

This guide is not meant as a text book for the Flight Instructors

Course (FIC) although it will be useful to trainee instructors

undergoing such instruction. Rather it is designed to be a

resource for FI(H) to revise the basic knowledge and skills

associated with helicopter flight instruction, assist in

standardisation and help prepare them for their periodic

assessments of competence.

At least every six years, instructors are required to pass an

Assessment of Competence (AOC) with a Flight Instructor

Examiner [FIE(H)]. During the AOC, the FIE(H) will assess the

instructor's skills and competencies on the ground and in the

air. The schedule for the AOC is shown in Table 1.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE>> PAGE 1

Table 1: AMC1 FCL.920 Instructor competencies and assessment

COMPETENCE

PERFORMANCE

KNOWLEDGE

Prepare resources

(a) ensures adequate facilities;

(a) understand objectives;

(b) prepares briefing material;

(b) available tools;

Create a climate

(a) establishes credentials,

(a) barriers to learning;

conducive to

role models appropriate behaviour;

(b) learning styles.

learning

(b) clarifies roles;

(b) learning styles.

(d) ascertains and supports trainees needs.

Present knowledge

(a) communicates clearly;

teaching methods.

(b) creates and sustains realism;

Integrate TEM or

makes TEM or CRM links with

HF, TEM or CRM.

CRM

technical training.

Manage time to

allocates time appropriate to

syllabus time allocation.

achieve training

achieving competency objective.

objectives

Facilitate learning

(a) encourages trainee participation;

(a) facilitation;

(b) shows motivating, patient, confident

(b) how to give constructive feedback;

and assertive manner;

questions and seek advice;

(d) encourages mutual support.

Assesses trainee

(a) assesses and encourages trainee

(a) observation techniques;

performance

self-assessment of performance

(b) methods for recording observations.

against competency standards;

(b) makes assessment decision and

provide clear feedback;

Monitor and

(a) compares individual outcomes to

(a) learning styles;

review progress

defined objectives;

(b) strategies for training adaptation

(b) identifies individual differences in

to meet individual needs.

learning rates;

Evaluate training

(a) elicits feedback from trainees;

sessions

(b) tracks training session processes

(a) competency unit and associated

against competence criteria;

elements;

(b) performance criteria.

Report outcome

reports accurately using only observed

(a) phase training objectives;

actions and events.

(b) individual versus systemic weaknesses.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE>> PAGE 2

THE LEARNING PROCESS

The Teaching and Learning syllabus in the Manual is laid out in

the same order as it appears in AMC FCL.930.FI for ease of

reference and this is the primary difference between this version

If you tell me, I will listen,

of the handbook and Issue 1.

If you show me, I will see,

There are many books on the subject of Teaching and Learning

If you let me experience, I will learn.

which cover this complex subject and which should be consulted

for greater depth on some of the individual topics which are

necessarily covered in headline detail only in this guide.

Part One of this guide describes some of the basic instructional

Lau-Tzu (c550 BC) - mystic philosopher

of ancient China.

techniques in accordance with the Teaching and Learning

Lau-Tzu was one of the first philosophers

syllabus that apply to:

to create an active learning philosophy

Theoretical knowledge training

Pre-flight briefing

In-flight instruction

Post flight briefing and debriefing

Student assessment and evaluation

By using these techniques you will make learning easier for

your students as you help them to meet the required flight

test standards

MOTIVATION

The factor that has perhaps the greatest influence on learning is

motivation, the force that causes a person to move towards a goal.

Motivations may be subtle and difficult to identify or they may be

obvious. Negative motivations are those which may engender

fear and be accepted by the student as threats. They are not

characteristically as effective in promoting learning as positive

motivations. Positive motivations are provided by the promise or

achievement of rewards. These rewards may be personal or

social; they may involve financial gain; satisfaction of a person's

sense of self-worth (self-concept) or public recognition. The flight

instructor can use some of these to advantage, for example, the

creation of a sense of achievement which, in turn contributes

positively to an individual's self-concept.

Helicopter instructors need to understand the individual motivation

of their students. These can be as varied as somebody who is just

thrilled by the concept of vertical flight and is eager to acquire the

skills necessary to achieve this, a person who wants to save time

travelling or commuting to work and who plans to use the

helicopter actively in the realm of his business to people seeking to

become commercial helicopter pilots. In these disparate cases,

the individual motivation may be different and lead to differences

in learning styles. In all cases, motivation may affect the student's

rate of progress. If for example, the business person begins to

form the opinion that it will be difficult to acquire the necessary

skills in the time available, then his or her motivation may suffer as

a result. The flight instructor needs to be aware of this and if

necessary vary instruction to maintain interest and to highlight its

relevance to the goal.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 6

Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into a meaningful

PERCEPTION AND

whole. Implicit in this is an understanding of how the

UNDERSTANDING

knowledge is to be used (relevance); how one factor affects

another and the interrelationship among the various sections of

Perception is the basis of all learning. Items of information,

knowledge that have been taught. Evoking these is the flight

called perceptions (sometimes called percepts) may be

instructor's principal responsibility.

directed to the brain by any one or a combination of the senses.

The senses are the routes into the human brain. In the

classroom the ears and eyes are the dominant routes but the

kinaesthetic sense of feel can be used too, notably when using

training aids and of course in the air when all of these senses

will be used.

Routes or channels for information entering the brain can be

described using the VARK acronym:

Visual (See It)

Aural (Hear/Say It)

Reading and Writing (It)

Kinaesthetic (Do It)

These channels for assimilating information will vary in

effectiveness. For some people visual stimuli are very

powerful and may well be the dominant route into the brain, for

others reading and writing or perhaps the aural route will be the

strongest. In practice a mixture of channels will be used. The

resultant mix can be said to be the individual's learning

Note: Although not strictly relevant here, it is worth noting that,

preference. The most productive instructional output will be

perhaps surprisingly, the auditory channel to the brain is the

achieved if instructional content is delivered in accordance with

quickest route. However, it is also likely that it will be the first

the student's individual learning preference. It is therefore

one to be shed in conditions of high workload and stress. This

helpful if the instructor can establish what this is this at an early

can happen in classroom settings but is more likely to be

stage. One way of doing this is to ask the person who may well

noticed in high workload or stressful situations in flight.

know what works best for them. However, it's worth

monitoring this at first because an individual may actually think

that their preference is different from that which it actually is.

Among the most important factors which affect students'

perceptions are:

• Their physical organism (e.g. is their perceptual apparatus

working in the environment?)

• Their needs and requirements (e.g. could be as simple as

basic needs such as food and water but also the student's

sense of self-esteem)

Their goals and values (e.g. motivation)

•

• Their self-concept (e.g. does it fit in with how they see

themselves?)

The time and opportunity for perception (e.g. making

•

These channels also vary depending on whether learning is

effective use of instructional time both in the air and on

acquiring knowledge or skills based. Given that flying

the ground)

instruction is a combination of the two, it is worth noting the

•

The element of threat (e.g. fear, not just of physical

difference in perception when the learning task is purely skills

danger but also failure to make progress)

based. Again the proportions are purely illustrative but they do

highlight to the instructor the potential variation in the

perceptive channels depending on the the type of learning.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 7

MEMORY AND ITS APPLICATION Here are some suggestions you can follow to arouse interest and

make the student ready to learn:

Memory is the major factor in learning. It constitutes

essentially all of the learning classified as 'knowledge' and has a

•

Start lessons with an ATTENTION-GETTING opening. For

basic effect on the retention of motor skills. The following are

examples of opening sentences that are effective, listen

carefully to the start of documentary films or interviews

five significant principles which are generally accepted as

having a direct application to remembering and consequently to

on television. Writers spend a great deal of time

learning:

developing the exact words to tune you in.

•

State SPECIFICALLY WHAT is required during the lesson

•

Praise stimulates remembering. Responses which give a

and how you intend to prove that the student has the

pleasurable return tend to be repeated. The absence of

knowledge or can master the skill at the end of the lesson.

praise or recognition tends to discourage one and

Make all your statements student-centred.

negative responses or lack of acceptance from the

•

Tell students the PURPOSE of the lesson and stress the

instructor tends to make recall less likely.

BENEFIT from the new knowledge or skill. Try to give

•

Recall is promoted by association. Pieces of information

more than one reason for learning, just in case the

or actions that are associated with something to be

student doesn’t fully accept the first reason.

learned tend to facilitate their later recall by the student.

•

Specify WHERE the lesson fits into the overall picture,

Unique or disassociated facts tend to be forgotten unless

and relate the lessons to past experiences that the

they are of particular interest to the student.

students may have had. This statement provides a link

•

Favourable attitudes aid retention. We learn and

with something students have learned before and allows

remember only what we wish to. Without motivation

them to build on that knowledge or skill. As an example, if

there is little chance for recall. The most effective

you were giving instruction on how to level out from the

motivations are those based on positive or rewarding

climb to a student with an aeroplane pilot licence, you

objectives.

could point out that the sequence of control movements

is the same as in an aeroplane. This concept is closely

Learning with all our senses is most effective. Although

•

related to the RELATIONSHIP learning factor.

we generally receive what we learn through the eyes and

ears, other senses also contribute to most perceptions.

•

If the new material is dependent on students having

When several senses respond together fuller

mastered previous lessons, confirm that the required

understanding and greater chance of recall is achieved.

level has been attained before proceeding with the new

material. Conduct a review and, if necessary, clear up any

• Meaningful repetition aids recall. Each repetition gives

misunderstandings by briefly re-teaching the major

the student an opportunity to gain a clearer and more

points.

accurate perception of the subject to be learned but

repetition alone does not guarantee retention. Practice

• Plan for reviews of lesson material. Students start to

gives an opportunity for learning but does not deliver it in

forget the moment they leave the instructional

its own right. Theorists believe that three to four

environment. The greatest rate of forgetting occurs

repetitions provide the maximum effect, after which the

during the first 24 to 48 hours after the material has been

rate of learning and probability of retention fall off rapidly.

learned. Ohio State University has carried out extensive

This is consistent with the learning curve illustrated in

research in this area and has designed a recommended

Table 1 on page 8.

schedule of when reviews should be done. Refer to

Figures 1 & 2 and the notes below each diagram.

Figure 1: Curve of remembering

100 --

90 --

80 --

70 --

60 --

50 --

40 --

30 --

20 --

10 --

0 --

Days since initial training

Figure 1

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 8

__^{Notes: S tatistics are based on an average cross section of}

HABITS AND TRANSFER

students.

Learning by developing perceptions and combining them into

The curve is very steep initially: within 2 days

insights is a process of forming performance habits and

students will remember less than 70% of what

transferring the habits performed in one task to the

they learned.

performance of more complicated subsequent tasks. For

At the end of the month, without reviews,

example the application of forward cyclic when collective pitch

students will remember only approximately 40%

is applied to maintain an accelerative attitude. The influence of

of the lesson material.

these small habits in the subsequent task, in this case, applying

forward cyclic when increasing collective pitch during the

recovery to the climb following an autorotation is called a

Figure 2: Curve of remembering

'transfer'.

1-2 days

7 days

28 days

Transfer is generally considered to be either positive or

100 --

90 --

negative. The application of aft cyclic when entering

80 --

autorotation to prevent the nose dropping would be an example

70 --

60 --

of a positive transfer while lowering the collective lever when

50 --

40 --

practising an engine-off landing in the hover would be an

30 --

example of a negative transfer where the student has applied a

20 --

Represents a review

10 --

to bring student back

procedure which has worked in other flight situations.

0 --

up to 100%

The syllabus of flight instruction must be arranged to take

Days since initial training

maximum advantage of positive transfer by introducing new

Figure 2

manoeuvres in an order and manner which permit the lessons

learned up till then to be applied in the new exercise.

Notes:

Habit patterns are probably the most important factor in

•

To maintain at least a 70% level, a review should be

learning to control the helicopter, for example, the correct use

conducted within 2 days.

of the sequences such as: Attitude-Power-Trim when levelling

•

After the material is learned a second time the curve

off from the climb or Select-Hold-Adjust to overcome flapback

flattens out somewhat, but after 7 days the student is

when accelerating. It is therefore the responsibility of the

back down to the 70% level.

instructor to insist on correct procedures from the outset.

•

Another review at 7 days and the curve really flattens. The

student will be above 70% retention until approximately

day 28.

A review at this time will generally cause long-lasting

•

retention of lesson material.

The amount of time required for reviews reduces each

•

time a review is conducted.

Example:

•

Initial training: 50 minutes

•

1st review (at 2 days): 15 minutes

•

2nd review (at 7 days): 10 minutes

3rd review (at 28 days): 5 minutes

•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 9

OBSTACLES TO LEARNING

Students may fail to make progress or learn for reasons other

than failing to understand the instruction imparted or the rules

of memory and forgetting. It could be that there are other

barriers or obstacles that are preventing the student from

concentrating upon the task in hand and assimilating the

instruction. A number of obstacles that are commonly found in

flying instruction are set out below:

•

A feeling of unfair treatment - Students who believe that

their instruction is inadequate or that efforts are not being

conscientiously considered and evaluated do not learn

well and their motivation will also suffer.

•

Impatience to proceed to more interesting operations -

Impatience is a greater deterrent to learning pilot skills

than is generally recognised. The instructor can do a

great deal to help here by explaining how the student is

progressing in terms of the syllabus of instruction and

norms and why certain skills have to be mastered in a

given order before progressing to the next lesson. If

students can see that there is a plan with clear goals and

milestones that are achievable and understand the

underlying reason, their impatient feelings give way to

eager anticipation and involvement. Of course there can

be other factors that can cause frustration and impatience

such as a prolonged spell of non-flying weather, aircraft

and/or instructor unavailability which may have to be

managed.

•

Worry or lack of interest. Worry and/or lack of interest has

a detrimental effect on learning. It can be difficult to deal

with and can stem from a variety of causes such as other

barriers. It could be external factors such as family or

financial worries and in some cases inadequacies on the

part of the instructor or the course. In the latter case the

best solution is prevention rather than cure.

Discouragement and emotional upsets are rare when

students feel that nothing is being withheld from them or

being neglected in their training.

Physical discomfort, illness or fatigue. Students who are

•

not completely at ease and whose attention is diverted by

discomfort caused by their surroundings or illness cannot

learn at a normal rate and flight instructors have to

monitor this closely. In the case of fatigue this is

particularly important as it is an insidious condition.

Fear, anxiety or timidity. Student anxiety will limit the

•

student's ability to absorb instruction. Flight Instructors

are responsible for providing a safe and comfortable

learning environment for their students. Those

instructors who remain calm and professional in their

demeanour will provide the necessary quiet reassurance

to their students through their competence and the

obvious priority that they place on flight safety. If the

instructor appears to be tense and excitable in the

helicopter then this will communicate itself rapidly to the

already anxious student.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 10

INCENTIVES TO LEARNING

LEARNING METHODS

Learning to fly should be an enjoyable experience. By making

People learn through meaningful instruction which builds

each lesson a pleasurable experience for the student, the flight

patterns of relationship in the student's consciousness. Rote

instructor can maintain a high level of motivation in the student.

learning on the other hand is superficial and is not easily

This does not mean that things must be made easy for the

retained, whereas meaningful learning goes deep because it

student nor that the instructor should sacrifice his standards of

involves principles and concepts in the student's own

performance to please the student. Students experience great

experience.

deal of satisfaction from accomplishing a learning task well or

People learn when there is a reason for remembering. A desire

by meeting the challenge of a difficult task.

to remember increases the chances of remembering. The

People are not always attracted to things that are pleasant and

flight instructor can help the student find and understand this

easy. They are more likely to devote more effort to things

desire.

which bring rewards such as self-enhancement and personal

Good study habits promote learning and the student must be

satisfaction. People want to feel capable and they are proud of

encouraged to study for meaning and not to learn by rote.

difficult achievements. A good flight instructor helps the

Short periods of review are beneficial and recitations and

student to attain these goals by using alternative presentations

quizzes can help.

and methods to impart instruction so that the students do not

feel that they are simply following in the steps of others.

Of the above frequent opportunities for practice is probably the

best method of them all.

Here are some suggestions you can follow to arouse interest

and make the student ready to learn:

Start lessons with an ATTENTION-GETTING opening. For

examples of opening sentences that are effective, listen

carefully to the start of documentary films or interviews on

television. Writers spend a great deal of time developing the

exact words to capture the imagination and stimulate interest.

State SPECIFICALLY WHAT is required during the lesson and

how you intend to prove that the student has the knowledge or

can master the skill at the end of the lesson. Make all your

statements student-centred.

Tell students the PURPOSE of the lesson and stress the

BENEFIT from the new knowledge or skill. Try to give more

than one reason for learning, just in case the student doesn't

fully accept the first reason.

Specify WHERE the lesson fits into the overall picture, and

relate the lessons to past experiences that the students may

have had. This statement provides a link with something

students have learned before and allows them to build on that

knowledge or skill. As an example, if you were giving instruction

on how to level out from the climb to a student with an

aeroplane pilot licence, you could point out that the sequence of

control movements is the same as in an aeroplane. This

concept is closely related to the RELATIONSHIP learning

factor.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 11

Slumps or plateaus in the rate of learning, as depicted in Figure

RATES OF LEARNING

4, are more likely to occur as the student advances to more

Learning proceeds rapidly at first when a new task is

complicated operations, such as hovering or transitions. Often

introduced, then slows as a reasonable degree of proficiency is

the reason is that a student has failed to master one basic

achieved. When plotted on a graph, this decrease in the rate of

element of the operation, and this leads to the appearance of

learning is shown as a levelling of the ascending curve that

deficiency in the performance of later elements. Improvement

represents progress. An exaggerated ideal curve is shown in

usually becomes normal again when this one basic element is

Figure 3 below.

mastered. You can accelerate improvement by careful fault

analysis and by concentrating instruction on that one phase of

The rate of progress in learning is affected by so many outside

the operation concerned.

influences that it is not often predictable. The rate of learning is

affected by such things as:

Without competent instruction, students will probably not

understand why they aren't improving and will become

discouraged. This discouragement tends to prolong the

•

Diversions

plateau. During such periods of discouragement, you should

step in to isolate and correct the situation and to provide special

• Flagging or lacking motivation

incentives until normal progress is resumed.

• Emotional disturbances

Reversals sometimes occur, during which a student's

performance becomes worse with continued practice.

• Upset training schedule

Generally such reversals are due to a faulty habit pattern

involving one of the basic elements of the manoeuvre or

• Weather

operation involved. This faulty habit causes your student to

• Equipment breakdown

practise an erroneous performance repeatedly, until correction

becomes very difficult. You must not accept such errors and

Unavoidable absences

•

misunderstandings as normal plateaux in the learning process.

They must be corrected before progress can resume.

During advanced stages of learning, the rate of progress can be

very slow.

Example: An acrobat who can perform a routine to a

level of 9.6 continually practises to improve the

performance. Raising the score up to 9.8 or 10 requires

extensive additional training and practice. The same is

true for flying; students may be nearly ready for a skill

test at an early stage but during the additional required

training to reach the required standard will only show

slight, slow improvement.

Reversals in the rate of learning could also take place if you

were to place too much emphasis on a single phase, element or

manoeuvre, particularly to the detriment of other evolutions.

Fig

3 - The Ideal Learning Curve

Fig 4 - A typical Learning Curve

Many helicopter students cannot attend regularly for reasons of

cost or other commitments. In such cases much time will be

Although it would be convenient if the rate of learning could be

spent in recapping previous instruction and progress can be

consistent and predictable as shown in Figure 3, it is not always

somewhat laborious. This may not however be as a result of the

so. Students may progress rapidly for a period, and then

student reaching a plateau of learning. Instead it is more likely

suddenly progress more slowly or even regress for a time. Such

to be due to the curve of remembering (see Memory and its

variations are to be expected and may represent a period of

Application) from which we note that at the end of a month,

training during which the student is perfecting the application of

without reviews, students will remember only approximately

the new skill. The correlation of the new skill with the other

40% of the lesson material.

learning tasks may not yet be obvious. It is the flight instructor's

responsibility to detect them as soon as possible and to try to

eliminate their causes by redirecting your instruction to level

them out as much as possible.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 12

Instructors may be discouraged to discover that a well-planned

FAST STARTERS. Fast starters are usually students with

lesson does not teach all students with equal effectiveness.

previous exposure to flight training who quickly grasp the initial

This is normal. Students seldom learn at the same rate.

air exercises. You should not omit anything from the briefing.

Differences in rates of learning are based on differences in

Watch for signs of weakness when new work is introduced.

intelligence, backg2round, experience, interest, desire to learn,

This type of student usually slows down to the level of the

and many other psychological, emotional, and physical factors.

others shortly after going solo. A high degree of proficiency

Instructors have to acknowledge that students are different and

throughout the course should not be anticipated unless the

that this fact dictates how much can be taught at what rate, and

student has above-average ability.

when. Some student characteristics that may give rise to

differences in the rate of learning are covered below:

IMMATURE. You must not be too harsh with students who

NERVOUS OR UNDER CONFIDENT. Nervousness or under

appear immature. You will find that within a short time in the

confidence in a student is a trait that may or may not disappear.

flying training environment, the students will more than likely

Instruction may be too rapid and material may not be absorbed.

attain a greater degree of maturity. Your attitude is of prime

Repeating the fundamentals and ensuring mastery will often

importance in setting an example. You must encourage and

alleviate this condition. You must ensure that this type of

help these students mature into the role of a responsible pilot

student receives deserved praise whenever possible. Harsh

whenever possible.

rebukes should be avoided. Patience is very necessary when

dealing with a student of this nature. The student must be

aware that you are trying to help. Nervous students may be so

apprehensive that they may not be suitable for pilot training.

You should avoid manoeuvres involving extreme helicopter

attitudes, unless they are essential to the lesson being taught.

Take the time to build the student up to exercises involving

__O

VERCONFIDENT OR CONCEITED. You must first ensure

that this type of student has the ability to match the confidence

and, if so, set more difficult tasks that require greater accuracy.

More criticism of imperfections is advisable. If the student has

little ability, a frank conversation may be required.

FORGETFUL OF INSTRUCTION. At the beginning of training,

students may forget previous instruction. Students with this

problem require a great deal of patience and probably need

more review than the average student. Extra time spent in

briefing and debriefing and more study on the student's part

should be rewarding for all concerned.

INCONSISTENT. Many students, at one time or another

throughout the course, appear to lack consistency in flying

proficiency. There are many reasons for this, and you must try

to find the one that fits a particular student. You must look at

yourself and your attitude towards the student. Most of us have

good days and bad days, but when a student shows large

fluctuations in proficiency the instructor must look closely at the

teaching activities. A change in approach or even a change of

instructors may be called for.

SLOW STARTERS. Slow starters are students who find

difficulty doing more than one thing at a time. Again, patience is

mandatory. Progress may be slow, but encouragement will

help.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 13

THE TEACHING PROCESS

anything, to inspire a student to learn. If outside responsibilities,

ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE

interests or worries are weighing heavily, if schedules are

TEACHING

overcrowded, or if personal problems seem insoluble, then the

student will be unable to develop the interest to learn. (see

Read the seven learning factors listed below carefully and

Incentives to Learning for suggestions on how to achieve this)

determine to what degree they apply to you as you learn new

skills and knowledge. If they apply to you, they will also apply to

PRIMACY: Present new knowledge or skills correctly the first

your students. Attempt to associate a single word that is used

time. (Teach it right the first time.)

to represent the entire learning factor.

When students are presented with new knowledge or skills,

Relationship is covered under Teaching from the Known to the

the first impression they receive is almost unshakeable. This

Unknown later in the guide.

means that what you teach must be correct the first time.

Students may forget the details of lessons, but they will retain

These factors are frequently referred to as Thorndike's Laws of

an overall image of the skill or knowledge for a long time.

Learning after E. L. Thorndike (1874 -1949), a pioneer of

Frequently you will be required to perform manoeuvres in the

educational psychology. His laws are universally accepted and

helicopter before a student has had the necessary backg2round

apply to all kinds of learning. Since Thorndike set down his

training. You must perform those manoeuvres correctly or the

original four laws, three more have been added: the law of

student may imitate any errors you make.

primacy, the law of intensity and the law of recency.

For example, before the exercise on Confined Areas, you and

•

READINESS: Ensure students are mentally, physically

your student may be required to land in a Confined area. Any

and emotionally ready to learn.

poor example shown at this time would have to be 'unlearned'

when the exercise came up in a subsequent lesson.

PRIMACY: Present new knowledge or skills correctly the

•

first time. (Teach it right the first time - see Memory and its

Suggestions:

Application)

•

Rehearse lessons to become thoroughly proficient at the

•

RELATIONSHIP: Present lessons in the logical sequence

skill or in answering questions related to the subject.

of known to unknown, simple to complex, easy to difficult.

(Note: Relationship is covered under Teaching from the

•

Attempt to give a perfect demonstration of the

Known to the Unknown later in the Guide.)

manoeuvres to be learned in the next lesson. If students

read or study exercise material without experiencing the

• EXERCISE: Ensure students are engaged in meaningful

actual exercise, they may form an incorrect mental image.

activity.

•

INTENSITY: Use dramatic, realistic or unexpected things,

•

If practicable, start each lesson with a perfect

as they are best remembered.

demonstration. Sometimes it may be better to avoid

talking during this demonstration to allow maximum

EFFECT: Ensure students gain a feeling of satisfaction

•

concentration on doing the skill perfectly.

from having taken part in a lesson. (see Memory and its

Application)

While the student is performing an exercise, supervise the

•

actions very closely. Stop the student as soon as any

RECENCY: Summarise and practise the important points

•

performance error is noticed, and teach the correct

at the end of each lesson, as the last things learned and

method. Close supervision means that you NEVER allow a

practised will be remembered the longest

student to make an error during the initial stages of

The learning factors listed above are useful 'tools' when they

training. Think of how you would go about training a

student to defuse a live bomb.

are applied correctly. The question, of course, is: 'How do these

learning factors apply to flight instruction?' This question will be

answered by reviewing and discussing each of the learning

EXERCISE: Ensure students are engaged in meaningful

activity.

factors that offer specific suggestions on what you can do to

utilise these 'tools' in your instruction.

Meaningful mental or physical activity is essential if learning is

to occur. During flight training this is achieved through correct

READINESS: Ensure students are mentally, physically and

practice or repetition. Students learn by applying what they

emotionally ready to learn.

have been told or what has been demonstrated. As learning

continues or is strengthened by additional practice, your

To learn, a person must be ready to do so. An effective

training syllabus should make provision for this practice time.

instructor understands this necessity and does the utmost to

You must ensure that the practice is directed towards a specific

provide well-conceived motivation. If a student has a strong

goal. Oral questions, hypothetical problems, dual review, or

purpose, a clear objective and a sound reason for learning

solo practice are all methods of providing mental or physical

something, progress will be much better than if motivation

activity.

were lacking. Under certain circumstances you can do little, if

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 14

If students are able to answer questions involving the words

Suggestions:

'how' and 'why', it usually means that they have a good

•

Show enthusiasm and sincerity for the subject you are

understanding of the subject. For you as a flight instructor,

teaching.

these two words are probably the most important in your

Attempt to employ a wide range of speech variation in

•

vocabulary. Study Table 1 opposite and note both the instructor

rate, volume and pitch to keep students attentive.

and student activities for each level of learning. Should you

attempt to employ the application level of learning without

•

Use appropriate and effective gestures while explaining

having covered the understanding level, students will probably

major points. The lesson will seem to 'come alive', and the

encounter much more difficulty than if they had mastered

points made will make a greater impression on your

previous levels.

student.

Suggestions:

•

Use a variety of training aids to appeal to as many senses

as possible. Each aid must relate directly to the subject

•

Unless you are testing to see what students have learned,

matter being taught.

avoid questions that are prefixed by the word 'what'. Give

students the facts, figures and necessary knowledge,

then ask 'how' and 'why' questions to develop their

EFFECT: Ensure that students gain a feeling of satisfaction

understanding of the new knowledge.

from having taken part in the lesson.

•

Once you have told students a fact, avoid repeating

Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or

yourself. Instead, have them relate the facts back to you.

satisfying feeling. Students will learn and remember more

This strengthens their learning and confirms their

under these conditions than when feelings of defeat,

knowledge of the required material.

frustration, anger or futility are developed. If you were to

•

Give students challenging problems that fit the level of

demonstrate a 'wingover' type manoeuvre during the first air

learning, and provide only enough assistance to keep

exercise, students would likely feel some inferiority, if not

actual fear. The experience would be negative. They might

__p

roblems alone, they have demonstrated adequate

even give up flying at that stage. This example is rather obvious,

knowledge and ability.

but you need to consider how your actions could produce

feelings of frustration or anger. For example, you ask a student

Test students' knowledge and abilities frequently. This

•

to perform a manoeuvre and then you immediately emphasise

reinforces learning and builds confidence. However,

all the errors the student made. Your identification of each error

before testing you must be reasonably certain that

may be very accurate, but how would the student feel about it?

students can answer the questions or perform the skills;

If the objective were to make the student feel defeated, then

otherwise they may become frustrated. Testing will also

you would probably succeed. It is better to point out the

identify areas in which students have weaknesses, thus

positive aspects of a student's performance first and then

allowing you to re teach these subjects to the required

discuss the major errors that were committed and finish with

standard.

suggestions for improvement.

Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements that

INTENSITY: Use dramatic, realistic or unexpected things, as

affect your student positively and give feelings of satisfaction.

they are best remembered.

Each learning experience does not have to be entirely

Students learn more from dramatic or exciting experiences

successful, nor do students have to master each lesson

than from boring ones. It is a well-known fact that a student's

completely. However, a student's chance of success will be

'look out' while flying will improve considerably after a first

increased with a sense of accomplishment and a pleasant

experience with a near miss. There is no suggestion here that

learning experience.

you provide your student with a near miss, but you should

Involve students in the lesson by developing some of the new

attempt to make your students' learning experiences exciting

material with them. This can be done by asking students

by being excited yourself and perhaps using appropriate

questions related to the subject and allowing students to

opportunities you can to introduce unexpected things to your

contribute knowledge and ideas.

students.

Throughout your lessons, obtain feedback from students by

The INTENSITY learning factor implies that students will learn

asking questions, observing the performance of a skill, and

more from real experiences than from substitutes. Instructors

watching for facial expressions that show a lack of

will have to use their imagination to develop vivid experiences

understanding. You must respond to any feedback by

for dramatic or realistic effects.

answering questions and providing help and correction where

needed.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 15

Suggestions:

•

Show students how to improve, and offer praise when

•

Plan for a pre-flight briefing immediately before the air

improvement occurs.

exercise, and review the main points by questioning. This

may sound like the READINESS and EXERCISE learning

•

Backup all your statements with reasons. Whenever you

factors. However, recency deals with the timing of the

tell students something, give the reason behind it. For

practice.

example, you say to a student, 'This helicopter has two

static vents, one on each side of the fuselage.' This is a

•

Ensure that students receive a thorough summary of the

fact, but if students do not know the reason for the two

important points towards the end of each lesson.

vents, they will probably pass it off as unimportant and

•

After each sequence within an exercise or class

forget. Remember, if a student understands the concept

presentation, ask questions on the material or summarise

or theory, details may be forgotten but the overall concept

the 'need to know' material.

will remain, and when a helicopter with only one vent is

•

Conduct a test as the final part of your lesson.

encountered more attention may be given to instrument

readings while making a cross-wind approach.

•

At intervals throughout the course, conduct review

sessions in which no new material is taught, but

•

When a student encounters difficulty in mastering an

objective, find a means of allowing some degree of

reinforcement of previously learned material is obtained.

success. For example, the lesson is steep turns. Rather

•

Attempt to finish each lesson with a practice of the most

than having students attempt the entire manoeuvre, try

important parts of the lesson. This applies to solo lessons

having them practise the entry. When no difficulty is

as well as dual exercises. Remember, students practise

experienced with the entry, add the next stage, then

knowledge by answering questions and they practise

continue until the entire manoeuvre is completed. Should

skills by doing.

difficulty still occur, back up a step and attempt medium

•

An important skill for a flight instructor is the ability to ask

turns rather than causing too much frustration.

good questions orally. Good oral questions satisfy all the

Sometimes instructors make the mistake of continuing to

identified learning factors. The next section of this guide

have students attempt a manoeuvre when performance is

will deal exclusively with oral questions.

deteriorating. It is better to quit at that point and go back to

something the student can do well.

•

Avoid ridicule or sarcasm. You may feel that it might take

the place of humour. However, students seldom have the

same feeling, especially if they are the butt of the remark.

•

Arrange each lesson so that when a student does

something correctly there is a reward. This reward can be

in the form of sincere, honest praise. You ask a student to

complete a walk pre-flight inspection on a specific

helicopter for which you have a component such as a nut

placed on the ground under the engine. Your student

notices the offending part and brings this to your attention

and is praised for this. If a thorough inspection is not

completed, you have an excellent teaching point to

emphasise why careful inspections must be done.

RECENCY: Summarise and practise the important points at the

end of each lesson, as things learned and practised last will be

remembered longest.

All things being equal, the things learned last are best

remembered. Conversely, the longer students are removed

from a new fact or even an understanding, the more difficulty

they will have remembering it. The need for reviews was

stated earlier, and a full circle has been completed: review new

material, etc.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 16

By comparison, construction of a course training plan for a

PLANNING OF INSTRUCTIONAL

smaller training organisation or a short course will be relatively

ACTIVITY

straightforward. This does not mean however, that the

process can be ignored. As flying instructors gain in

This Guide has quite a lot to say about the need for properly

structured lessons stressing how important thorough

experience, they will usually hold more senior positions in

preparation is to successful delivery and ultimately to the

organisations and assume greater responsibility for the

planning and management of instructional activity. However,

effectiveness of the learning that takes place. However, even

well-planned lessons in the classroom or aircraft won't be

the management of the training programme and planning of

instruction is a shared responsibility and all helicopter flying

effective unless they take place within the context of a well-

instructors will be required to develop these skills to a greater or

planned delivery system. Instructional activity has to be

resourced and managed to be effective. Lessons have to take

lesser degree. In a small training organisation employing a

single helicopter instructor, it is quite likely that the instructor

place in a logical sequence, and facilities have to be available to

provide the learning environment. In a large and busy ATO, the

will be responsible for planning instructional activity or play a

management of this will be the responsibility of a training

large part in the process.

operations team probably reporting directly to the Head of

Training. It will be necessary to coordinate the flying

programme with the ground instructional programme to

include the availability of classrooms, teaching aids and

instructors. Due consideration must be paid to the physical

needs of both classroom and flight instructors and their

students when planning the instructional activity. In a teaching

establishment where instruction is full-time, then a training

programme and timetable will be necessary. Detailed

discussion of how to construct a training programme and

timetable is outside the scope of this guide. Complex courses

may call for detailed design by a training analyst but the basic

principles (much simplified) are:

Obtain the approved course syllabus and learning

•

objectives from the appropriate authority then break this

down into sections with individual lessons identified in

each block of instruction. Naturally, this task is made

much easier if lesson plans have already been developed

for the course.

Assign realistic timings to each lesson. In the case of air

•

exercises, ensure that adequate time is allowed for pre-

flight instructional tasks including planning and briefing,

getting to the aircraft and carrying out the necessary pre-

flight inspection. Realistic timings must be allowed to get

airborne and position the aircraft for the lesson. Similarly

sufficient time must be allowed to shut-down the aircraft,

carry out a post flight walk round, return to the operations

room, complete paperwork, debrief the student and

complete the post flight assessment and report. Training

organisations will naturally wish to compress these

timings for business reasons but flying instructors should

insist on adequate time for the activities to be completed

quickly and efficiently but not rushed.

When the 'block' programme of instruction has been

•

assembled (a spreadsheet application can be very useful

in speeding up the process particularly when the

inevitable changes have to be made), a timetable can be

constructed by arranging the lessons in a logical

sequence taking account of available resources. Don't

forget to allow sufficient time for administrative activity

and it is sensible to include some spare or 'float' time to

allow for the weather and other operational delays.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 17

Novice instructors are frequently apprehensive about trying

TEACHING METHODS

developmental teaching. Experience has shown that students

DEVELOPMENTAL TEACHING OR

consistently surprise instructors if given the chance to

TEACHING BY QUESTIONING

participate actively in the learning process. The disadvantage of

lecturing during preparatory instruction is that students are

Developmental teaching is based upon a student-centred

frequently told material that they already know, or that they

philosophy of teaching that requires you to reason with

reasonably can be expected to deduce on their own. The best

students to have them meet predetermined objectives. By

teaching occurs when students are led to a point from which

using the students' backg2round knowledge, you ask questions

they can systematically direct their own reasoning to the

that lead the students to determine the next step in a

solution of a problem. The secret of effective learning is to keep

procedure, the logical application of a principle, or the final

students mentally active in the learning process. With

solution to a problem. The rate of progress in developing the

developmental teaching students are forced to think.

more complex ideas of the lesson is governed by the students'

This method is ideally suited to ground instruction and pre and

perception and comprehension. Questions should be asked to

post flight debriefing. Good questioning technique is the

review previously learned material. The process of

cornerstone of developmental teaching and techniques for oral

developmental teaching begins when students are required to

questioning and handling student answers are covered in depth

reason out, and make suggestions, with respect to new

later in the Guide in the section entitled Training Programme

material.

Development - Student Participation and Practice

Developmental teaching has been used throughout the years by

all good teachers. Because of the requirement for every student

to participate, developmental teaching is effective with small

groups and with individual students. It can be used at any level of

student knowledge, provided that you know or determine the

appropriate level and proceed accordingly. Depending upon the

subject matter, some lessons can be entirely 'developmental'.

More frequently, however, there will be a combination of

teaching by explanation (where it may be more efficient to

explain certain material) and developmental teaching (where

crucial areas of the subject matter can be reasoned with your

students). In almost every lesson, some developmental

teaching is appropriate and desirable.

The main advantage of developmental teaching is that it

promotes efficient student learning because it satisfied all the

basic aspects of learning. Since students participate in

meaningful activity, they are forced to think about the material

being learned, as questions are answered verbally.

Consequently, interest is maintained, a sense of

accomplishment is gained, and effective learning takes place.

You receive constant feedback and frequent confirmation of

the students' progress.

Careful planning for developmental teaching is critical because

you must formulate appropriate questions that demand

reasoning on the part of your students. The standard

questioning techniques must be observed, and student

responses must be handled with tact and discretion. In addition

to being a master of the subject material, you must be flexible in

your approach. You must permit adequate discussion, yet

exercise sufficient control to move towards the lesson

objectives. Frequent summaries are necessary to consolidate

the material as the lesson progresses.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 18

THE DEMONSTRATION PERFORMANCE METHOD

TEACHING FROM THE 'KNOWN'

The Demonstration - Performance method of flight instruction

TO THE 'UNKNOWN'

(sometimes called the Demonstration Method) is widely

Thorndike's Law of RELATIONSHIP states that lessons

accepted as the preferred method for in-flight instruction. It is

discussed in some detail as part of the FLIGHT: AIRBORNE

should be presented : In the logical sequence of known to

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES section.

unknown, simple to complex, easy to difficult.

This method of instruction has five components

This particular learning factor emphasises the necessity for your

student to understand relationships between new and old facts,

• Explanation

or between ideas and skills, if learning is to take place. During

flight training, students must understand not only why they are

• Demonstration

learning a particular exercise, but how that exercise combines

• Student Performance

with previous ones and where it fits into the overall syllabus.

Giving students the relationship at the start of the lesson

• Instructor Supervision

provides preparation for learning. Continuing the process

• Evaluation

throughout the lesson helps to maintain the desire to learn.

• known to unknown

THE TELLING AND DOING TECHNIQUE

•

easy to difficult

•

concrete to abstract

Another technique that can be used is the telling and doing

•

simple to complex

technique which can be summarised as follows:

•

familiar to unfamiliar.

Instructor tells - instructor does

Always review basic knowledge before proceeding to the

Student tells - instructor does

unknown. For example, when teaching students to multiply

Student tells - student does

with a circular slide rule, the first example should be as simple

as 2 × 2. The reason is that students already know the answer

Student does - instructor evaluates

and are able to follow the manipulation of the slide rule. In the

The difference between this technique and the Demonstration-

next problem or example, a change of one factor (2 × 4) allows

students to build on knowledge already gained. The process is

Performance method is that the student is involved in the

second demonstration by the instructor (student tells - instructor

continued until students have mastered all the required

does) and thus cannot adopt a passive role. This strategy could

knowledge and skills necessary to solve real problems.

be useful to confirm that students know and understand exactly

Present new material in stages, confirming that students have

what is required from them when it is their turn to perform the

mastered one stage before proceeding to the next. The length

manoeuvre. This method requires high-order communication

of time for each stage would depend on the complexity of the

skills from students at a time when they may find it is all that they

material covered.

can do to fly the manoeuvre accurately.

Reinforce students' learning of new facts or ideas by frequently

summarising the major points of your lesson.

Use examples and comparisons to show how the new material

being learned is really not much different from that already

known by your students. The examples you use may be real or

imaginary, as the main purpose of an example is to paint a

verbal picture so students can visualise relationships between

the new material and things that have happened before. This is

called using 'verbal aids' for your instruction.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 19

In this case, the items that will need further development are

USE OF LESSON PLANS

the long briefing objectives and the air exercise and the flight

instructor would need to prepare his board layout in advance

The lesson plan is an essential tool for the flight instructor.

There are many formats available and they will differ depending

and rehearse it as necessary. However, It is likely that

on the type of instruction being undertaken. For a large class,

instructors will have their own board plans and notes already

covering a major theoretical knowledge topic, it is probable that

available from their own notes taken during their FIC training or

perhaps using a standard set of lesson plans included in the

a fairly complex and detailed plan will be involved. In contrast,

for a one-to-one revision session, the requirement to produce a

ATO Manual. Whatever method is used, it is essential that

formal lesson plan will be greatly reduced.

flight instructors prepare their briefings thoroughly and the

lesson plan is the tried and tested way of doing this.

Learning objectives are written so that they are exact,

For the air exercise, an aide memoire in card form is the usual

observable and measurable and are composed of the

method of ensuring that the lesson sequence is followed. So

Performance Standard that has to be achieved, the conditions

under which it has to be achieved and the standard that must be

that flight instructors maintain situational awareness at all times

and monitor what their students are doing, such aide memoires

attained. For flying lessons, the objectives will form part of the

should contain the minimum amount of detail necessary to

pre-flight briefing, the conditions are normally standard, for

example, by day under VFR and the standard that has to be

prompt the instructor and maintain the pace of the lesson. For

obtained is ultimately that of the PPL(H)/LAPL(H) Skill Test.

this reason in some quarters, these kneeboard sized aides are

called 'pace notes'. As experience is gained, they can largely

These objectives should be noted down together with the

be dispensed with but it is still important that the airborne

standard and to be achieved and the conditions. Enabling

lesson and sequence is planned or reviewed for each flight to

objectives that will have to be covered in order to meet the main

take account of different factors, e.g. the student's ability and

objective(s) must also be included as they will also need to be

progress, the wind and weather conditions and the TEM special

covered in the lesson or briefing.

considerations for them.

A simple lesson plan from which the briefing could be

developed further is shown below. The contents have been

drawn up using the details provided in Part 2 of the Guide for

Exercise 16.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 20

TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES

THE VALUE OF A STRUCTURED

INTEGRATION OF THEORETICAL

(APPROVED) COURSE OF

KNOWLEDGE AND FLIGHT

TRAINING

INSTRUCTION

An approved course of training for the EASA PPL(H) comprises

Courses offered a part of the curriculum of ATOs and DTOs are

at least 100 hours of theoretical knowledge instruction. The

required to be structured. This means that ground and flight

training should cover aspects related to non-technical skills in

instruction is systematic and can be presented in a logical

an integrated manner. The theoretical knowledge instruction

sequence which will help the student to make progress. It will

provided by the ATO should include a certain element of formal

also assist the flight instructor to prepare lessons properly and

classroom work but may include also such facilities as

teaching will be more effective as a result.

interactive video, slide or tape presentation, computer-based

The structured course is equally valuable to those learners who

training and other media distance learning courses.

cannot take advantage of regularly paced instruction for

The arrangement of flying lessons set out in, for example, the

whatever reason because their progress (or lack of) will be

Part FCL PPL(H) syllabus set out in Part 2 is progressive and

easier to measure from the standpoint of the performance

although lessons do not always have to be carried out in the

standard that they should be at in contrast to their actual

exact order of the exercise numbers, they broadly follow one

standard. Remedial action can then be instigated to restore

another in sequence. The reason for this is that each exercise

their position within the training taxonomy.

consists of training and enabling objectives which build on the

knowledge and skills of gained during earlier exercises. In turn,

THE IMPORTANCE OF A

these rely on underpinning theoretical knowledge to

understand and make sense of the briefing which the student

PLANNED SYLLABUS

needs to understand the flying briefing and make progress in

In the same way as it is valuable to have a structured course, it is

the air where time is so precious.

equally important to have a planned syllabus of instruction

The laid down theoretical knowledge for the PPL(H) is shown

which enables the flying instruction to be correctly sequenced.

under main subject headings in the table below.

Arguably, it would be difficult to have a structured course

without a planned syllabus.

With a planned syllabus, any training gaps are readily

identifiable to the student and instructor and it is easier to

measure progress. This can help motivate the student where

progress is apparent or highlight areas of weakness if this is not

the case. This is particularly important where a student's

attendance is irregular for any reason.

Another advantage of a planned syllabus is that it allows the

operations staff and the instructor to plan ahead and book slots

in the flying programme appropriate to the student's progress.

There is a lot to learn and this needs to be planned and

integrated with the flying instruction. For example, the student

should have completed the theoretical knowledge syllabus for

Navigation a short time (Law of Recency) before embarking on

the navigation phase of the course. Similarly, during the earlier

lessons, if a student had not covered some of the aspects of

Helicopter Principles of Flight, then it is likely that time will be

wasted in briefing prior to flying the sortie at best or, at worst,

the student won't understand the instruction and fail to make

progress. For this reason, the Theoretical Knowledge syllabus

should be integrated with the flying syllabus to the maximum

extent possible.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 22

TECHNIQUES OF

^__ APPLIED INSTRUCTION

PREPARE THE CLASSROOM/TEACHING AREA

The following techniques, if applied in a conscientious manner,

will help the flight instructor to give effective instruction.

BEFORE THE LESSON

Because most flight instructors also carry out some, if not all, of

the ground school training, references to classroom-type

Reason: The class must be arranged for best student learning. If

instruction are included in this summary. The techniques of

students cannot see all the aids, they may miss a point. Lesson

preparation appears more professional if no time is wasted

instruction, questioning techniques, lesson planning, etc., are

organising aids or rearranging seating.

equally applicable for providing large group instruction or for air

instruction on a one to one basis, individual preparatory ground

instruction, or pre flight briefings.

PREPARE/CHECKTRAININGDEVICES/AIDS

To present a lesson in a professional manner, you must prepare

BEFORE THE LESSON

in advance and proceed as follows:

Reason: This avoids embarrassment should an item not work,

or should any chart, slide or graph be shown in the wrong order.

PREPARE A LESSON PLAN

PREPARE YOUR STUDENTS FOR LEARNING

Reason: A lesson plan acts as a guide and keeps you on track

during your presentation. It also ensures that important points

Reason: If students are to learn, they must be physically,

are covered and not neglected because of poor memory.

mentally and emotionally ready to do so.

What to include: Headings of main points; sufficient notes to

How to do it:

jog memory on talking points; specific questions and answers

to confirm student learning; visual aid instructions (including a

•

Tell students specifically what is required of them during

chalkboard plan); a well-thought-out opening and closing

the lesson and what they will be able to do at the end of

statement; estimates of the amount of time to be spent on each

the lesson.

major idea or item; a visual aids plan; any other point that you

•

Tell students why they should take part in the lesson and

feel will help to get the lesson across.

how the new skill or knowledge will benefit them. Give as

What to avoid: Writing material out in full detail (this promotes

many advantages as you possibly can for having students

reading of the material while you are in front of the class); using

learn, as they may not agree with some of your reasons.

single space format (this does not allow for revision of the notes

Give students an overall picture of the lesson, and show

the next time the lesson is to be given); writing in longhand,

•

them how it fits into the entire course. Attempt to relate

unless you are able to read your notes at a distance of 1 metre.

the new material to some past and/or future experience

(This makes you appear not to know your material because you

of your students.

have to look closely at your lesson plan rather than just glance at

it to jog your memory.)

The length of time required to prepare students for

• learning depends primarily on their backg2round

knowledge and the complexity of the material. As a

general guide, the amount of time needed is

approximately 10% of the lesson.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 23

START THE PRESENTATION OF NEW

IDENTIFY AND EMPHASISE MAJOR POINTS

MATERIAL AT THE STUDENTS’ LEVEL OF

FOR THE STUDENTS

UNDERSTANDING

Reason: During any presentation there is a mixture of ‘need to

know’ material, which is extremely important, and ‘nice to

Reason: If you begin your presentation at a level your students do

know’ material, which may or may not have to be remembered

not understand, there will be confusion and time wasted. Little or

no learning will take place.

for a long period of time.

How to determine the students’ level of understanding:

How to identify and emphasise points for your students:

•

Prepare a visual aid of the main points;

Before the instruction starts, conduct a Threshold

•

approximately75% of learning comes from vision,

Knowledge Test to determine what your student knows

whereas only about 13% comes from hearing. The visual

or doesn’t know. A Threshold Knowledge Test is simply

aid may be a heading on a chalkboard, chart, or projected

some form of examination, written or oral, of sufficient

image.

length to inform you as to the actual level of knowledge.

•

Have students write the main points down in their note

During the course of instruction have periodic reviews.

•

books, or provide notes that include these main points.

Conduct a review of previous lessons before you start

•

Make a verbal statement to the students, such as: ‘This

each lesson. The review should consist of a series of

particular point is very important: remember it.’

questions. If your students answer correctly, proceed. If

•

they do not, re-teach.

Prepare an orientation board (chalk board or sheet of

paper) that identifies the major points for a lesson.

Check with other instructors for the strengths and

•

Students can refer to this board throughout the lesson,

weaknesses of your students, and arrange your material

and this helps their thoughts to be guided to a specific

to fit the students’ needs.

area.

•

Raise the volume of your voice and reduce the rate of

PROCEED AT THE RATE OF STUDENT

delivery while stating an important point, to add

COMPREHENSION

emphasis.

•

Besides emphasising the main points, you should also

Reason: If you get ahead of your students during the

emphasise safety and the points that are easily forgotten

presentation, you are in the same position as if you started

or difficult to remember.

above their level.

•

Provide emphasis according to relative importance. The

How to ensure that you are proceeding at the required rate:

most important things get a greater amount of emphasis.

•

Arrange your material in stages. Stop at the end of each

•

Emphasise points by giving verbal examples (real or

imaginary); by comparisons (similarity to, or difference

stage and ask specific questions on the material you have

just covered. If your students answer correctly, proceed.

from, known facts); and, perhaps most importantly, by

giving reasons for each point you make. Students tend to

If they do not, re-teach. The length of time for a stage

remember better if they understand the reasons behind

depends on the complexity of the material being

presented, but a good general rule is 8 to 12 minutes.

every point they must learn.

Repeat the point frequently by using summaries, or have

Write out in full a number of well-thought-out questions.

•

Put these questions on your lesson plan and make sure

your students repeat the point by answering your

questions.

they are asked during the presentation. The feedback you

get from these answers will determine whether or not

Conduct periodic reviews of the ‘need-to-know’ material.

your students understand.

•

Have the students complete a home assignment of the

Observe your students closely for facial expressions that

important points of a lesson.

•

could indicate that they do not understand a particular

Have students record, in note form, the major ideas or

point. If students say they understand, ask them a

items that you feel must be emphasised. By having them

•

question to make sure.

write ideas down you are using another sense, so

Encourage students to ask questions on points that they

learning may be reinforced.

•

do not fully understand.

Use a variety of training aids to appeal to several senses

Provide for lots of practice of basic skills before you go on

•

(touch, feel, etc.).

• to the more complex parts.

Do not emphasise ‘nice-to-know’ material.

• Orphan

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 24

GIVE CLEAR EXPLANATIONS AND

DEMONSTRATIONS

Guidelines:

Reason: If students do not understand an explanation, you will

have to re-teach by rephrasing or by going over the material a

•

Plan the lesson first, and then select the type of visual

second time. The same applies to a sloppy or inaccurate

support that helps students learn the material. DO NOT

demonstration.

select a visual aid and then try to build a lesson around it.

Suggestions for ensuring that your explanations and

Just because the aid looks impressive, it does not mean it

demonstrations are clear:

will fill the need, the need being to help your students

learn the ‘must-know’ information.

•

Start verbal explanations by referring to something

Plan to use a visual display of all major points that are

already known by your students. Association of ideas

•

makes it easier to follow your explanation.

covered during your lesson. Simple wording on the

whiteboard is usually better than repeating the main

•

Use words and phrases that are commonly used. Avoid

points over and over again.

showing off your command of the English language by

using such phrases as: ‘Elaborate on the fundamental

Make your aids simple and clear. Eliminate all

•

unnecessary data. Avoid the tendency to produce ornate,

ramifications of hylampherism’. Instead, ask (‘What

happens when the lever is lifted?’)

detailed artwork.

Attempt to reduce complex material and ideas to a

Manufacture aids that can be seen by all the students.

•

simple, easy to understand form. The best way to do this

Before you use it, put the aid in the position in which it is

to be used. Go to the position of the student farthest

is to start with something your students know about and

away, and ensure that you can see the aid clearly.

build on that knowledge in small steps.

If you are required to demonstrate something, make sure

Use a variety of colours to add interest, but make sure you

•

keep associated parts or ideas or a repeating idea in the

you can do it correctly before you show the students.

same colour. In this way, you help your students to follow

Make sure all students can see even the smallest points

your presentation more easily.

•

of a demonstration; if necessary, gather them around

you.

•

If you are doing a simultaneous demonstration and

When an aid is not in use, cover it up or remove it from sight. It

explanation, break the demonstration down into small

can act as a distraction for your students if it is there but not

steps and explain each step thoroughly, giving reasons,

being used.

examples and comparisons.

•

If the aid includes written words, have someone check for

USE VISUAL AIDS AND USE THEM EFFECTIVELY

correct spelling and grammar. You would be surprised

how many times misspelled words are displayed for

Reason: Approximately 75% of all learning comes through

students.

sight.

If possible, stand well away from the aid and use a

•

Sources of ideas:

pointer, so that you do not obstruct the view of any

student.

•

graphic artists or personnel associated with the

•

production of visual aids

If you are using charts it is sometimes advisable to have

two copies, one labelled and one unlabelled. The

•

other instructors, who can often give spark to an idea

unlabelled one can be used later to test student

•

commercial displays in newspapers, magazines,

knowledge. Alternatively, a duplicate work sheet of the

television and stores

chart can be given to each student to fill in or label.

finally, your own imagination, which (if you give it full rein)

•

Consider: Will the aid help the student learn better, easier, or

is an excellent source of ideas for aids.

faster? You should ‘show them as well as tell them’.

Types of visual support:

•

actual equipment

•

mock-ups, charts, diagrams, pictures or models

DVDs, films, video tape and cassette recordings

•

• sometimes, people.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 25

PROVIDE FOR MAXIMUM STUDENT ACTIVITY

VARY THE RATE, VOLUME AND PITCH OF YOUR

VOICE WHEN DELIVERING THE LESSON

DURING THE LESSON

Reason: Any form of variety adds to student interest. Speaking

Reason: Students learn more easily if they are actively

in a dull manner will generally put students to sleep, or at least

engaged in the learning situation.

allow their minds to wander off the subject.

Consider:

•

When learning a theory subject, students’ practice of that

•

Speak at a fast rate while presenting ‘nice to know’

theory is usually in the form of answering questions.

material. This produces the effect of observable

Ensure that you ask questions throughout the

enthusiasm, and enthusiasm is contagious.

presentation.

Speak at a slow rate when identifying‘ must know’

Use sound questioning technique, as outlined in the

•

information. This allows students to separate the ‘need to

section ‘Oral Questions’.

know’ from the ‘nice to know’ material and in most cases

Distribute your questions evenly among all the students,

•

adds emphasis to the points being made.

to avoid having a few answer all the questions.

Adjust the volume of your voice to the conditions under

•

Make your questions thought provoking and challenging.

•

which you are instructing. If there is backg2round noise

Avoid questions that require a simple YES or NO answer,

you must raise the volume of your voice so that all the

•

unless you immediately follow up with a ‘why’ or ‘how’

students can hear what you are saying.

question.

Generally you will have very little control over the pitch of

•

Always have enough information in the stem of your

your voice, but adjusting the volume and varying the rate

•

question to guide the students’ thoughts towards a

of delivery will often help to vary the pitch to some extent.

particular area. Avoid general or ambiguous questions,

such as ‘What goes up the cylinder of an engine?’ You

OBTAIN FEED BACK FROM STUDENTS BY

may not get the answer you are looking for.

LOOKING AT THEM (EYE CONTACT)

Meaningful activity while learning a skill is normally a

•

combination of answering questions and practising the

Reason: It gives students the feeling that you are interested in

various steps of the skill. Arrange to have students

them and allows you to determine whether or not they

involved in the practice as soon as possible after the start

understand what you are presenting.

of the lesson. If possible, build into the first part of the

Consider:

lesson a ‘hands on’ opportunity for your students. This

increases their interest and in most cases will give them a

•

Look directly at the students, but do not stare at any

positive desire to learn more.

particular individual for too long at a time. If students avert

Always supervise student practice very closely; do not

their eyes it means you have stared too long and possibly

allow them to make mistakes from which they could

caused some embarrassment-look elsewhere.

•

begin to learn bad habits. If you do, you will have to

•Make your eye contact impartial. Do not favour any

reteach them. The phrase ‘practice makes perfect’ is only

individual student or group of students; include them all in

true if the person practising receives close guidance and

your presentations.

supervision. REMEMBER, ONLY CORRECT PRACTICE

MAKES PERFECT.

When students are able to perform a task with a

reasonable degree of proficiency, introduce some

•

competition (speed or ability) or a variation of the

skill-but only when they have almost mastered the basic

skill.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 26

GROUP LECTURES

The techniques described above will work equally well for

group instruction. In particular, group instruction calls for

developmental teaching using oral questioning techniques.

These are covered in depth in the section entitled STUDENT

PARTICIPATION AND PRACTICE later on in the Guide. It is

normal for a group lecture to be instructor led and while student

participation and discussion is generally to be welcomed it can

be harder to control leading to timings going awry unless care is

taken.

INDIVIDUAL BRIEFINGS

Individual briefings lie at the heart of helicopter flying

instruction. It is rare to get large or even medium sized groups

together for classroom work so the theoretical knowledge

lessons required may be given in a very small group or a one-to-

one setting.

In the photograph below the instructor and student are making

effective use of a computer during a one-to-one pre-flight

briefing. Use of this sort of display, speeds up briefings and can

provide high quality graphics with the ability to integrate video

and other media seamlessly. There are some disadvantages as

it can be harder to get the student to help build up the picture

using question and answer technique than it would be if using a

whiteboard.

STUDENT PARTICIPATION OR

DISCUSSION

Properly managed, student discussion is very fruitful. It is an

excellent way in which to explore certain topics and get the

students involved and thinking about the subject. Careful

preparation is needed by the instructor to identify a set of

questions that will support the planned training objectives for

the session so that he can 'seed' the discussion as necessary.

It may be necessary to circulate some of the questions

beforehand so that the learners can do some preparation in

advance. For a discussion, the instructor should arrange for the

classroom to be set out in seminar style and nominate a student

to act as chairperson. The instructor can then take a backseat

to observe and join in for time to time if necessary to clarify or

correct a point.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 27

FLIGHT: AIRBORNE

INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNIQUES

THE FLIGHT OR COCKPIT ENVIRONMENT

As your student gains proficiency, you may look for minor errors

The in-flight exercise is the culmination of all ground training

and correct them in the same manner. Remember, though, that

and preparation. To achieve maximum effectiveness, it must be

learning to fly proficiently takes time and you should

flown immediately after the pre-flight briefing, and to avoid

concentrate on the major points first. Many of the minor errors

confusion it should be flown as briefed. The following is a guide

will be corrected as your student corrects the major faults. Also,

to the conduct of a training flight. Variations may be necessary

remember to acknowledge good performance.

to suit individual student requirements.

If practicable, conclude the air exercise with a perfect

There should never be any doubt as to who has control of the

demonstration of the manoeuvre to be learned on the next

helicopter. The procedure for giving and taking control is:

lesson. This will help your student to fully understand the home

study for the next exercise and will also provide a positive

When you, as pilot in command, wish to give control to your

mental picture about what will be taking place during the next

student, say clearly 'Follow me'. Teach your student to take

flight. Of course, you would not give a demonstration of new

control only when ready and to always say 'I have control'. You

material if the next lesson were to be a review or a repeat of a

do not relinquish control until you hear this phrase. Formalise

lesson.

this portion of the evolution by saying 'You Have Control'.

When you want to take control, do so positively using the same

While safety in the classroom cannot be ignored, it is benign by

procedure in reverse.

comparison with the flight environment which is potentially

hazardous. As well as imparting instruction, the instructor is

As pilot in command, you have the final authority. Your request

responsible for all aspects of flight safety, maintaining

to give or take control should not be questioned but acted on as

situational awareness at all times and acting as a role model for

quickly as possible by your students.

the students on which they will base their own flying both while

When the student has control, you must not 'ride' the controls.

undergoing training and in the years to come. It is therefore

Your student may feel that you are taking control, and this could

vital that slavish attention is paid to cockpit discipline, checks,

lead to a dangerous situation. Additionally, you may rob your

lookout and the handover control at all times. For example, it is

student of the feeling of accomplishing the manoeuvre

not sufficient for instructors to simply glance at the instruments

independently. This is particularly difficult during critical

to check that everything is working as it should be and move on

manoeuvres, such as simulated engine off landings to the

to the next item, they must draw the student's attention to the

ground, when there is little time available to the instructor to

fact that the necessary checks have been completed in

correct errors. For low intervention time exercises such as this,

accordance with the checklist or standard operating

the instructor's hands and feet should be very near to the

procedures. It is not simply sufficient to ensure all the safety

controls at all times. Before entering the manoeuvre the flight

requirements of the flight have been met, it is necessary to

instructor should confirm the procedure for closing the throttle

show overtly by example how this has been achieved.

and any other points.

Instructors must therefore maintain a great deal of spare

capacity at all times and be able to divide their attention so that

For most new exercises you should first review the main points

due attention is given to the cockpit environment, the conduct

of the manoeuvre and then give a perfect demonstration. The

of the flight and at the same time be able to impart instruction

review must be short. Include such items as airspeeds, power

confidently and clearly as well as monitoring their student's

settings, altitudes, etc. Usually you can obtain this information

performance at all times. This is not an easy task.

from your student. Your demonstration should be a complete

manoeuvre and should set the standard you want your student

When planning the instructional flight, instructors have to take

to ultimately achieve.

into account and mitigate the threats posed by the airborne

environment and be prepared to trap any errors that occur

In the case of a complex manoeuvre, after the perfect

quickly. A momentary lapse in in situational awareness,

demonstration, demonstrate a small portion of the manoeuvre,

possibly caused by concentrating on student performance or

giving a brief explanation either before, during or after the

correcting an error could result in an airspace infringement,

demonstration. Have your student attempt this small portion.

failing to notice other traffic, or even loss of control. It is

Watch closely for any major error. If you observe a major error,

therefore important to pay sufficient attention not just to what

take control immediately and explain to your student what was

is to be taught during the lesson but how and where the air

done incorrectly, then demonstrate as soon as possible what to

exercise will be conducted. The necessary spare capacity can

do to correct the error. Allow practice of that small portion

be built into the instructional flight by careful planning and

before proceeding to the next portion. Continue the process of

preparation and choice of exercise location.

demonstration, explanation and practice with close supervision

of each step or portion, until your student has completed the

entire manoeuvre. Then, allow continued practice, slowly

withdrawing your guidance and assistance.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 28

THE DEMONSTRATION-PERFORMANCE

METHOD OF TEACHING

This technique which is the basis of in-flight instruction was

You will find that different instructors will approach the teaching

covered briefly in Teaching Methods earlier in the Guide. To

of this skill differently. The following represents a suggested

recap, it consists of the five elements which are covered in

approach that appears to work best for most instructors.

more detail in this section:

•

On the flight before the exercise on ‘practice forced

•

Explanation

landings’ (PFL’s) give a perfect demonstration of a PFL. It

•

Demonstration

may be better not to talk during this demonstration, since

you want it to be as perfect as possible to set the standard

• Student performance

for the future performance. There is another advantage of

•

Instructor supervision

giving a perfect demonstration before the forced landing

•

Evaluation.

exercise. Your students will be able to form a clearer

mental picture when studying the flight guide, because

EXPLANATION AND DEMONSTRATION

they have seen the actual manoeuvre.

•

The next step would be for you to give a full detailed

The explanation and demonstration may be done at the same

explanation of a practice forced landing. During this

time, or the demonstration given first followed by an

explanation you would use all the instructional techniques

explanation, or vice versa. The type of skill you are required to

described previously. You must give reasons for what is

teach might determine the best approach.

expected, draw comparisons with things already known,

Consider the following. You are teaching a student how to do a

and give examples to clarify points. This explanation

forced landing. Here are your options:

should be given on the ground; use visual aids to assist

student learning.

•

Demonstrate a forced approach and simultaneously give

•

When in the air, give a demonstration, but also include

an explanation of what you are doing and why you are

important parts of the explanation. Usually asking

doing it.

students questions about what you are doing or should do

will give them an opportunity to prove that they know the

•

Complete the demonstration with no explanation and

procedure, although they have not yet flown it.

then give a detailed explanation of what you have done.

•

After completing the practice forced landing approach,

Give an explanation of what you intend to do and then do

•

and while climbing for altitude, clear up any

it.

misunderstandings the students may have and ask

questions.

•

The demonstration and explanation portion of the

demonstration-performance method is now complete,

and you should proceed to the next part, which is the

student performance and instructor supervision.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 29

STUDENT PERFORMANCE AND INSTRUCTOR

RULES FOR USING THE DEMONSTRATION

SUPERVISION

PERFORMANCE METHOD

Student performance and instructor supervision are always

Give a perfect demonstration or, if this is not practicable, show

carried out concurrently during the initial stages of training. A

the finished product. Example: When teaching map

student should not be allowed to make a major error at this

preparation, show a map with a cross country trip all marked

time. Your supervision must be close enough to detect the start

out: students will see the standard expected in preparing their

of an error, and you must correct the student at that point.

own maps.

The student should be allowed to perform the task in small

Give a step by step explanation of the required task. Use

segments, with you providing close supervision of each

reasons, examples and comparisons to make the explanation

segment.

clear.

Referring to our example of the practice forced landing,

Have students imitate a step of the skill while you provide close

consider the following suggestion of how to divide the task into

supervision. For example, have students practise the entry to a

segments:

steep turn until it is correctly done, before you go on to the next

step.

On the student's first attempt:

Continue until the student has imitated each step.

You, the instructor:

Provide student practice, with assistance as necessary.

select the field, making sure that it is within easy autorotational

range

Ensure that the amount of time allotted for student practice

equals or exceeds the amount of time for the demonstration,

perform all in-flight checks, including LOOKOUT.

explanation, and student performance under very close

The student flies the helicopter and concentrates on making

supervision. Students should take as much time to practise as

the field.

you take to teach.

If the student makes a major error, you take control and place

Overall rule: while you are demonstrating and explaining, your

the helicopter in the correct position, then give the student

student listens and observes. While your student is performing,

control and continue the approach. (Try to ensure that the

you listen and observe. NEVER ask the student to perform

student makes the field on the first attempt, even if you have to

while you are explaining.

help all the way through.)

Complete the exercise with an evaluation (final check-up) in

On subsequent attempts, depending on the degree of success

which students have the opportunity to prove what they can do.

of the previous attempt, add more items for the student to carry

NEVER just explain and demonstrate a skill or procedure for

out.

students. ALWAYS have students perform the skill to ensure

Continue the process until you feel the student can fly the

that the skill or procedure is done properly. STICK WITH THEM

complete manoeuvre alone. You have now completed the

UNTIL THE SKILL IS DONE CORRECTLY. For example, a

student performance and instructor supervision portion of this

student is about to proceed on a solo cross country trip and asks

method, and you should now proceed to the evaluation.

you how to fill in the navigation log. Explaining how to do it,

even with a demonstration, is no guarantee of student success.

EVALUATION

Have students tell you how to do it or, better still, have them

The evaluation portion of the demonstration method is where

make a practice log entry before departure.

students get an opportunity to prove that they can do the

manoeuvre without assistance.

For the practice forced landing you should tell students that you

will be simulating an engine failure and that they are to carry out

the entire procedure, including all checks and lookout.

While the student is performing this manoeuvre you must

refrain from making any comments. Offer no assistance

whatsoever even grunts or head nods. You must, however,

observe the entire manoeuvre very carefully, so that you can

analyse any errors that the student may make and debrief

accordingly.

NOTE: Of course, you would interrupt the student's

performance if safety were to become a factor.

Success or failure during the evaluation stage of the lesson will

determine whether you carry on with the next exercise or

repeat the lesson.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 30

POST-FLIGHT AND IN-FLIGHT JUDGEMENT

AND DECISION MAKING

Review with the student each exercise undertaken during the

flight. In the case of a dual flight, the debriefing should include

strengths and weaknesses and suggestions to improve

performance. An outline of the next training session should be

given, along with study assignments.

This should follow all flights, dual and solo. Points should

include:

•

the student's own assessment of the flight and

performance

•

your assessment of the student's performance.

•

This should include both the strong and weak points,

and advice on how to correct any errors.

•

answering any questions the student may have

assigning study subjects where appropriate.

•

Note: Debriefings should always be conducted in private and in

a manner mindful of the sensitivities of the student.

When the debriefing is complete a record of the flight should be

made in the form set out in the Approved Training

Organisation's Manual and the taxonomy completed. Such

records form an essential record of student progress and must

be completed accurately and in sufficient detail.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 31

STUDENT EVALUATION AND TESTING

ASSESSMENT OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE

In order to monitor students' progress with the aim of providing

temptation to be more lenient during post-flight debriefs

direction and raising the level of performance, periodic

and write-ups. This must be resisted as it does nobody

objective assessments must be made. These assessments

any favours in the long term and could even be a safety

can be entered into the student's records. It is important that

issue. Students have a right to expect an honest

such assessments are objective and that assessments are

appraisal of their ability and progress. Experience would

made against a defined standard or rubric. Not all ATOs will

show that far from taking their business elsewhere they

have a grading system in their Manuals but if there is one it

are likely to remain with an ATO or DTO where

should be used as it will provide examples of student

instructors have this ethos.

performance against which a grade could be awarded.

Personal contrast. This error is found to be where the

•

Typically an assessment based on Above Average, Average

instructor tends to downgrade the student in areas where

and Low Average might be made. An overview of these grades

his personal performance excels and to upgrade the

over a period of time will provide the instructor, Chief Flying

student where he feels he is less skilful.

Instructor and the Head of Training with an idea of whether the

Logical Error. This error results from a tendency on the

•

student is making satisfactory progress or whether another

part of the instructor to see a similarity in unrelated skills

training strategy or one-to-one appraisal would be appropriate.

and to rate them alike. An example of this is where an

There is inevitably a degree of subjectivity when assessing skill

instructor may tie together two items such as ability to

based performance rather than examination results so it is

maintain heading and ability to maintain altitude. When a

worth considering some of the common errors that can be

high performance is observed in one, the instructor rates

made and which persistently occur in all subjective rating

highly in the other.

systems. When the instructor understands these errors, it

helps to reduce their effect.

•

Error of narrow criteria. This is the error caused by an

instructor grading his immediate students relative to each

Halo Error. This error is described as a tendency, on the

•

other bracket off (e.g. a flight instructor has three

part of the instructor, to judge individual skills based on a

students and will see one as above average, one as an

general mental attitude toward the individual. In other

average, and one below average). Actually, they may be

words, the instructor's opinion of individuals such as

above or below average with respect to normal

speech, mannerisms, personality and demeanour does

standards.

affect ratings.

• Central tendency. This error is commonly referred to as

the tendency to centralise assessments and scores. It is

the tendency to group ratings in a narrow range in the

centre of whatever scoring scale is being used. The type

THE FUNCTION OF PROGRESS TESTS

of scale in use, e.g. a descriptive scale such as below

average, average, and above average or a numerical scale

Evaluation is one of the fundamental principles of the teaching

e.g. a score of one to five, has no bearing on this error.

process described earlier in the Guide. The evaluation of a

The reason for this is error seems to be the reluctance on

student's progress is a continuing process carried on

the part of the instructor to use the extreme ends of a

throughout each piece of instruction. Similarly, demonstration

rating scale, since the use of average normally requires no

of piloting ability is one of the basic elements of flight

further comment or qualification.

instruction. It is a method of confirming that the instructional

objectives have been met. It is reassuring for the students to

Leniency. This error is the tendency for the instructor to

•

know that they are making progress and it is useful for the

mark too high on whatever scale there are using.

instructor who will be confident in their ability to move on to the

Generally, the tendency is to the high side; however,

next stage of instruction.

there are some who tend to mark on the low side. This

inclination among some instructors has been recognised

For students who are failing to make the required progress,

for some time and students are generally aware of it

revision can be arranged and any mistakes and errors that have

perhaps referring to them as 'hard' or 'easy' graders. This

crept into their flying can be analysed and corrected. How this

area is more prevalent where the results must be made

is done is covered later in this section.

known to the student and in cases where the student and

instructor are relatively more acquainted. If, for example,

the student is a valued client then there could be a

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 32

RECALL OF KNOWLEDGE

TRANSLATION OF KNOWLEDGE INTO

UNDERSTANDING

Each of the theories of forgetting implies that when a person

forgets something, it is not actually lost, it is simply unavailable

Students acquire knowledge from a mix of their learning

for recall. The flight instructor's challenge is how to make sure

experiences and the effort that they put into learning them.

that the student's learning is readily available for recall.

Ultimately, facts have to be learned and the skills acquired by a

In addition to the five principles covered under Memory and Its

dint of hard work and application. This stage of knowledge

Application earlier in the Guide, there is a considerable amount

acquisition is reached by Rote learning. Rote is the ability to

of research to show that the students who are most actively

recall facts and information that have been learned but without

engaged in the learning process have a much higher retention

having anything other than a superficial understanding of their

thereby supporting the contention that active learning is

importance.

superior to listening which has be a continual theme throughout

The next level is reached as the students begin to develop an

the Guide.

understanding of the importance and relevance of the facts and

There are other practical things instructors can do to assist their

information that they have at their disposal. At the point at

students to retain knowledge. The use of mnemonics is an

which they comprehend or grasp the nature or meaning of

example. The chief value in Mnemonics is that they allow

something they can be said to have developed understanding

items to be recalled in a particular order which can be

or comprehension.

particularly helpful. For example the well-known 'ANDS'

acronym for East/West compass acceleration errors and UNOS

DEVELOPMENT OF UNDERSTANDING INTO

for North/South turning errors:

ACTIONS

Accelerate

Undershoot

The next levels of learning occur when the student is able to

North

deploy a particular bit of knowledge or a skill that has been

Decelerate

Overshoot

learned because the relevance and use of it is now understood

and the student can apply it successfully to a task. This is the

South

point at which students are said to have turned their

Chaining is a way of remembering ordered and unordered lists

understanding into actions or application. Further progress up

and consists of creating a story in which each word or idea that

the taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain comes as the students

needs to be remembered cues the next list.

are able to correlate their understanding of what they have

A useful way of ensuring that knowledge and skills are retained

learned, understood and applied with their previous or

is through the formation of good habits in aviation. If the

subsequent training. They will be able to synthesise their

instructor uses a particular technique to remember a sequence

learning by putting different parts together to form a new and

of last-minute checks in the cockpit just to confirm that all

integrated whole. This represents the fifth of the six levels of

switch selections have been made and that the instrument

the cognitive hierarchy developed by Benjamin Bloom in the

readings are correct for take-off and, importantly he does this

mid-1900s which is known as Bloom's Taxonomy of the

consistently and without variation before every flight, then his

Cognitive Domain or Learning in Action.

student is likely to imitate this and bring it into his or her own

practice. This is a good example of habit formation. Providing

NEED TO EVALUATE THE RATE OF PROGRESS

always that the habits are representative of good airmanship,

The final stage of Bloom's taxonomy is that of Evaluation and

this would be a very positive and repeatable way for the student

occurs when the students above are able to evaluate the

to recall knowledge.

importance of the information they have acquired. As flying

Instructors can do much to help students by sharing their own

students, they would be expected to evaluate the importance

methods with them and explaining the limitations of short-term

of the information for a pilot. They would be able to make

memory and the benefits of regular paced study rather than last

judgements about the merits of the ideas, methods or materials

minute 'cramming' for exams which may be effective but the

being discussed.

retention will not be there in the long term

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 33

The necessity for analysing weaknesses is readily apparent.

ANALYSIS OF STUDENT ERRORS

This leads into the third element: specific suggestions for

When discussing a student's faults, always take control so that

improvement. Whenever you are critiquing a student, consider

your student may devote full attention to the instruction.

the following. If you are unable to suggest a remedy for

overcoming the weakness, your student does not have that

ESTABLISH THE REASONS FOR ERRORS

weakness. Positive suggestions are mandatory for improving

future performance. However, you should limit your critique to

In some cases you may ask the student to analyse the errors in

the identification of a maximum of three weaknesses with

a particular sequence; usually this will happen during the later

suggested remedies. Attempting to correct all the weaknesses

stages of training. If a student indicates problems on a solo

that a student may have at one time could result in your student

flight, it may be possible to analyse the problems from the

not being able to correct any weaknesses. During actual flight

student's description of actions and the helicopter's response.

instruction you should attempt to pinpoint a single major

The correct technique can then be reviewed and practised on

weakness before considering the next. Improvement in a

the next flight. Sometimes, however, students may not be able

student's performance takes time. An expert will not appear

to identify or describe a problem clearly enough for a good

overnight. More will be learned if a definite improvement in

ground analysis to be made. You should then fly the exercise on

performance is experienced each time the student takes part in

the next dual flight, where you can analyse the performance

a lesson.

and correct any faults. The process of fault analysis can be

summarised as follows:

Effective fault analysis always strives for maximum objectivity.

•

Recognise the fault

You should never allow personal bias to affect the grading or

analysis of any particular flight. Objectivity should be

•

Correct the fault

considered in both student personality and flying techniques.

•

Prevent reoccurrence

At times, personality conflicts occur, but as a professional

instructor you will hold these to a minimum. In the area of flight

Fault analysis is necessary at all levels of flight training. The

technique, you may become dogmatic and accept only one way

ability to debrief effectively does more to separate the

to accomplish a manoeuvre. Always keep in mind that there are

successful instructor from the poor one than does above

many techniques that accomplish the same manoeuvre

average flying ability. You must realise that the sole purpose of

correctly.

fault analysis is to improve future student performance. A valid

critique contains three essential elements:

You must be consistent in your analysis. Always attach the

same importance to an error, provided the circumstances

1. Strengths

remain the same. Without a consistent set of rules, you will be

2. Weaknesses

considered arbitrary or accused of playing favourites.

3. Specific suggestions for improvement.

Honesty is the best policy for critiquing. The situation where

Without each of these elements, fault analysis is ineffective.

you may attempt to motivate a weak student by giving better

grades than deserved jeopardises the effectiveness of your

Strengths are analysed to give a feeling of satisfaction and to

instruction. Students must know exactly where they stand and

show that you recognise what students can do well. If you are

be given specific suggestions for their improvement. This is the

unable to identify strengths, it will be difficult for students to

sole purpose of faults analysis.

believe that your identification of weaknesses is accurate.

Positive reinforcement of a student's strengths will frequently

do more for the student than any number of remedial

suggestions on your part.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 35

TACKLE MAJOR FAULTS FIRST,

THE NEED FOR CLEAR CONCISE

MINOR FAULTS SECOND

COMMUNICATION

The recommended format to follow when conducting fault

Effective communication between flight instructor and student

analysis is:

is essential or instruction will be ineffective. The in-flight

environment poses additional requirements given the added

When in the air:

distractions of aircraft and intercom noise, the sensations of

•

identify major strengths

flight possibly accompanied by feelings of apprehension,

•

pinpoint a major weakness

anxiety and physical discomfort, e.g. feeling too hot and air

sickness. Due allowance must be made for these and

•

suggest a remedy to correct that major weakness

communication adjusted accordingly.

Communication is a three-stage rather than two-stage process.

On the ground:

For example, if an instructor wishes to impart an instruction or

identify major strengths

convey some information to students then this has to be

•

transmitted by the instructor in the first place. Secondly the

•

identify a maximum of three major weaknesses

students have to receive the instruction or information.

•

suggest remedies to correct the major weaknesses.

However, even if these two stages have been successful, it

does not necessarily mean that the students have extracted the

NOTE: One way to think of a major weakness is: 'What item, if

exact meaning intended by the instructor. Different word or

corrected now, would result in the correction of the greatest

tones or even mishearing may mean that the students'

number of other faults?' As student performance improves, the

interpretation of what the instructor intended to tell them has

weaknesses that originally were considered minor ones now

been lost or distorted. A third stage is therefore needed to

become the only weaknesses. All weaknesses will be dealt

check that the students understanding of the meaning is the

with, but in order; the most important ones first.

same as the instructor intended. This can best be achieved by

the instructor posing a question to check understanding. This

AVOIDANCE OF OVER CRITICISM

could be done by asking the student to describe briefly how

Do not be overly critical of minor faults during early stages. A

they would go about the manoeuvre or procedure that was the

useful method of doing this is to pick one thing that you would

subject of the initial communication. This need not be a

like your student to continue doing as a result of what you have

protracted process but it should be possible to quickly ascertain

seen during today's flight and one thing that you would like

whether or not the communication has been successful

them to stop doing immediately. It is possible to increase the

thereby avoiding situations where the student says… “But I

number in both categories but this technique will be more

thought you wanted me to turn on to a southerly heading when

effective if you choose a very low number so that students can

I reached …”

readily understand what has to be done to improve and sustain

Communication is likely to be more effective if it is kept short

their performance and, most importantly, develop a strategy to

using simple words and uncomplicated short sentences. This

address them. The more items in the list the harder this will be

is even more important in the air.

and will eventually lead to confusion

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 36

TRAINING PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT

LESSON PLANNING

The starting point for lesson planning is the course aim and

objectives closely followed by the syllabus. The latter so that

the lesson can be put into context. With these documents to

hand, the instructor can begin the task of planning the lesson in

outline to start with. If the course is a tried and tested one like,

say the PPL(H), then the syllabus is already well defined. If this

is a course already offered by the ATO, then details will be

available already be available. The details will include the

course training plan consisting of all the necessary documents

to run the course including a model timetable.

If this is the first presentation of the course by the ATO/DTO

then there is a great deal to do. An early and quite laborious task

that has to be undertaken first of all is to translate the syllabus

for the course into blocks of instruction showing the availability

of resource. The next stage is to confirm the training objectives

and prepare an outline timetable for the course. When this has

been done and the details of each lesson objectives are known,

work can begin on preparing the lesson plans.

PREPARATION

The preparation of lesson pans is covered in several places in

this Guide and will not be repeated here.

EXPLANATION AND

DEMONSTRATION

The Explanation and Demonstration elements of the

Demonstration - Performance method of flying instruction is

covered in depth in an earlier chapter.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 38

__ STUDENT PARTICIPATION

AND PRACTICE

When you present a lesson you have many techniques and aids

NOTE: A drawback of using oral questions to evaluate learning

at your disposal. One aid that can be used to stimulate learning

is that only random sampling of a class is obtained, since only

and can be effectively applied to satisfy all seven learning

one student answers each question. This drawback can be

factors is oral questioning.

overcome by the use of some sort of student response system

by the instructor. On a one-to-one basis, as in pre-flight and post

The actual technique of questioning is a difficult one and is

flight briefings, the issue mentioned above is not a problem.

normally one of the most neglected areas of instruction. Good

oral questioning requires the ability to think quickly and easily

If oral questions are to serve the purposes stated in paragraph

while facing a class or individual student, to shift and change as

3, you must be mindful of the following desirable qualities of

thoughts progress, and to phrase questions in clear and simple

good questions when composing or preparing to use them.

terms. You must always be mindful of the technique to follow

EASILY UNDERSTOOD. Questions should be stated in

when handling student questions and answers.

simple straightforward language. They should be brief, yet

First, questions can be used to PROMOTE MENTAL ACTIVITY.

complete enough that students have no doubt as to the

You can state a fact and provide visual or verbal support to back

meaning of the question.

it up, but the surest way for students to remember is to work it

COMPOSED OF COMMON WORDS. Questions should be

out for themselves. Whenever you can use an oral question to

designed to measure knowledge of a subject, not use of

make your students think and reason out the fact, you should

language. The use of high-sounding words may give you a

take advantage of the situation. Example: As students work

chance to display your vocabulary but adds nothing to

towards an objective it is often necessary for them to recall

instruction. Remember, if students do not know the meaning of

pertinent data or knowledge learned previously. A well worded

the words they will not be able to answer the question. Always

oral question could provide the required information, thus

keep your vocabulary within the grasp of your student.

promoting mental activity.

THOUGHT-PROVOKING. Questions should not be so easy

A second purpose of oral questions is to AROUSE AND

that the answer is obvious to all students. Students should be

MAINTAIN STUDENT INTEREST. Merely making a statement

challenged to apply their knowledge. You should avoid using

will often result in a 'so what' attitude, but asking questions

questions where your student has a 50/50 chance of being

makes students feel they are participating and contributing to

correct. Examples of these are the YES/NO and TRUE/FALSE

the lesson and thereby arouses interest. You can maintain this

type, unless these questions immediately are followed by a

interest throughout the lesson by the continuous development

'why' or 'how' type question.

of facts and ideas. Remember: Telling is NOT teaching.

Another purpose of oral questions is to GUIDE THOUGHT. By

using questions you can lead students to think through to a

logical solution. Questions can direct students' thinking

through a definite sequence or to particular objectives. During

discussions you can use questions to guide your students'

thoughts back to the objective if they seem to be far afield. An

experienced instructor can guide students through an entire

lesson by asking the right questions at the right time.

A final purpose of oral questions is to EVALUATE LEARNING for

the benefit of both instructor and student. Oral questions may

be used after each stage of a lesson to ensure that students are

following before you proceed to the next stage. At the end of

the lesson, such questions confirm that students have attained

the objectives for that particular lesson.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 39

HANDLING STUDENT ANSWERS

ABOUT THE MAJOR TEACHING POINTS OF THE LESSON.

LISTEN TO THE ANSWER. Often an instructor, after naming a

Questions must be built around the main teaching points of the

student to answer a question, will immediately begin to think

lessons. They must be asked at the proper time so that these

about phrasing the next question and will not be listening to the

points are emphasised. Your students may be confused if

answer; the instructor may say 'Right' to an incorrect answer.

questions are asked in a haphazard fashion. The purpose for

This could lead to student confusion. You should always listen

which a question is intended may be lost. To ensure mental

to the answer.

participation by all students, the following procedure is used:

CONFIRM THE CORRECT RESPONSE. Student answers

ASK THE QUESTION. You should state the question, applying

must be evaluated carefully so as to leave no doubt as to what is

the qualities of a good question. To do this you must have the

the correct answer.

question in mind before asking it. If questions are being used to

Aside from always confirming correct answers, there are

evaluate learning or to confirm attainment of objectives, you

certain techniques you must be aware of when handling

should prepare them beforehand and write them in your lesson

student answers.

plan. It is often a good idea for beginning instructors to write out

ALL questions until they are accustomed to thinking on their

DISCOURAGE GROUP ANSWERS. When students answer

feet.

as a group it is difficult to determine who supplied correct or

incorrect answers. This may lead to student confusion. When

PAUSE. After asking the question, you should pause for

you are given a new class, establish early that you do not want

approximately 1 to 5 seconds (depending on the complexity of

group answers but will call upon a student by name to answer.

the question) to allow all students to think it over and formulate

You may, however, want to use group answers at times to

an answer. During the pause you should look over the class,

increase class enthusiasm.

being careful not to 'telegraph' who you are going to call upon to

provide the answer.

DO NOT MAKE A HABIT OF REPEATING ANSWERS. This

becomes monotonous to students when you always repeat the

NAME THE STUDENT. A problem you continuously have to

answer. If the answer provided is not correct or needs

face is selecting the student to answer the question. Some

clarification, pass the question on to another student. If the

effort should be made to fit the question to the individual,

students do not answer loudly enough for all the class to hear,

because students will vary in ability and you have to recognise

have them speak more loudly and repeat the answer.

and provide for these differences. Therefore, you should

consider giving the more difficult questions to the most

GIVE CREDIT FOR GOOD ANSWERS. This is especially true

advanced students. You also have to ensure that everyone in

for the weak or shy student. When you are using oral questions

the class is called upon to provide answers with reasonable

to develop points from the class, do not reject answers that

frequency. A number of systems commonly used to ensure

pertain to the subject although they may not be exactly what

this have serious drawbacks. For example, if members of a

you are after. Give praise and try using a newly phrased

class are called on according to seating arrangement or

question to bring out your point. If you receive a completely

alphabetical order, it becomes quite easy for students to

incorrect answer, don't embarrass your student by saying

determine when they will be named to answer; thus the lazy

'Wrong!' Diplomatically state that the answer is not what you

students will not give serious thought to any question until it is

wanted, comment on the degree of correctness and ask a

getting close to their turn to answer. Possibly the most practical

supplemental question or refer the question to another

approach is to call upon students in a random order, then

student.

indicate by a check mark on a seating plan card each time a

student is asked a question. To get a broader sampling of

learning and to maintain interest, you should periodically call

upon other class members to confirm the answer made by the

first student asked.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 40

HANDLING STUDENT QUESTIONS

The Kirkpatrick Model considers the effectiveness of training

across four levels:

NEVER discourage a genuine question pertaining to the lesson.

Level 1: Reaction

The degree to which participants find the training

here are six others who wanted to ask it'. Usually students ask

favourable, engaging and relevant to their jobs

questions because you have not given a clear explanation of the

point or fact being queried. Some techniques to follow regarding

Level 2: Learning

student questions are:

The degree to which participants acquire the intended

ENCOURAGE QUESTIONS. Let the class know early in the

knowledge, skills, attitude, confidence and commitment

lesson that you encourage questions at any time if the students

based on their participation in the training

are not clear on points being taught. If it will not interfere with the

Level 3: Behaviour

presentation of the lesson, it is usually best to allow questions

The degree to which participants apply what they learned

immediately any point arises rather than waiting for a break in the

during training when they are back on the job

lesson to solicit questions. If you wait for questions, the point of

Level 4: Results

concern may have slipped their minds.

The degree to which targeted outcomes occur as a result of

PASS QUESTIONS TO OTHER STUDENTS. Occasionally pass

the training and the support and accountability package

a student question to other members of the class. This will create

interest and get class participation. Do not over use this

From a practical standpoint, the model can be implemented in

two ways, internally and externally. Internally, the training

technique, as the students may get the impression that you don't

organisation establishes the effectiveness of its own training by

know the answer and are fishing for help. Above all, never use

monitoring the results of internal testing, quizzes and

this technique for any question to which you do not know the

questionnaires. The organisation will seek and gather

answer.

information from its students on all four of Kirkpatrick's levels.

REJECT QUESTIONS NOT RELATED TO THE LESSON. Quite

Armed with this information it will be able to make changes to

often students will ask a question totally unrelated to the lesson.

its training programme addressing any weaknesses or areas for

improvement identified by its customers (the students). This

__ Politely reject the question, being careful not to offend the

student, and then say that it is a question you would prefer to

process which is one of continuous improvement, is known as

INTERNAL VALIDATION.

discuss after class.

As its name suggests, EXTERNAL VALIDATION takes place

DO NOT BLUFF. No matter how knowledgeable you are of your

away from the ATO or DTO. The most obvious example of

subject, there will be times when you will be asked a legitimate

external evaluation at work is that of oversight by the National

question and will not have an answer. If you do not know the

Aviation Authority (NAA). When skill and proficiency checks are

answer, say so do not bluff. Tell the class you will find the

carried out, even if they are done by a flight examiner employed

answer. Ensure you do, and then inform the individual who

by the training organisation, they are being carried out on behalf

asked, as well as the rest of the class.

of the NAA and therefore this is external evaluation in the form

ENSURE THAT ALL THE CLASS HEARS THE QUESTION.

of confirmation that the candidate has reached or maintained

When a question is asked, check that all members of the class

the standard required to exercise the privileges of his or her

licence. Other external validation checks are carried out on the

have heard it. When you answer the question, answer to the

training programme by NAAs. Where an ATO is training

class and not only to the individual asking it. If a long, detailed

candidates for another organisation, for example, a helicopter

answer is necessary, the remainder of the class may lose

operating company, then examiners and heads of training from

interest and 'tune out' if you get into a conversation with one

that company should be involved in the external validation

student.

(evaluation) of the effectiveness of the training and the training

programme provided by the ATO as they will be able to

EVALUATION

comment on Level 3 and especially Level 4 of the model.

Evaluation is a specialised subject and detailed consideration of it

Helicopter flight instructors will therefore find themselves

is beyond the scope of this Guide. Nevertheless, flying

involved in evaluation of the training programme. Often this is

instructors have to be equipped with a basic knowledge of how

simply limited to asking for feedback from students in a form

training programmes are evaluated so that they can contribute to

that can be posted on social media. While there is nothing

the process.

wrong with this, it is hardly the disciplined approach advocated

by Kilpatrick and while it might do much for the popularity of the

The Kirkpatrick Model is the worldwide standard for evaluating

training organisation - which is not a bad thing in itself - it is less

the effectiveness of training and was developed by Dr Donald

likely to achieve the critical appraisal necessary for

Kirkpatrick, Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin

improvement. Professional helicopter flight instructors might

and past president of the American Society for Training and

consider seeking further training on how to get the most of the

Development (ASTD). He first published his Four-Level Training

evaluation process as a tool to improve the effectiveness of

Evaluation Model in 1959, in the US Training and Development

their training programmes.

Journal . The model was updated in 1975 and again in 1994 in his

best-known work, Evaluating Training Programs. The value of

any type of training, formal or informal is considered and it applies

equally to flying training.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 41

HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

RELEVANT TO FLIGHT INSTRUCTION

Human factors have a very profound effect on the performance

other aircraft and situations. This is another example of

of a student helicopter pilot. They can basically be divided into

Thorndike's Laws of Primacy and Exercise at work.

Physiological and Psychological Factors. Of the two,

Different perspectives of the ground seen from the air

psychological factors will be constantly present while

can cause visual illusions which could be a barrier to

physiological ones tend to be transient in nature. They are of

learning if they are not discussed with the student.

huge importance but once identified, they can usually be dealt

•

Vestibular Illusions. These can be powerful and need to

with and strategy or method devised to keep them in check.

be understood particularly before instrument flying.

For this reason, more space is devoted to the psychological

•

Aircraft Noise. If students are uncomfortable during

factors in this Guide

flight, then they will be unable to absorb instruction. Also

excessive noise can damage hearing and instructors

PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

must discuss hearing loss and how to prevent it with their

students. Clearly students will be in difficulties in a short

In order to absorb instruction and make the learning process

time if they have to struggle to catch what their instructor

work, students must not be distracted by their physical

is telling them or they are having difficulty hearing what is

environment. Clearly, if someone is feeling unwell they will not

being said on the radio.

feel up to studying, their concentration is likely to be affected

and it is probable that their performance will be adversely

•

Vibration. Vibration too can cause health issues and

affected. In this case the remedial action is evident and the

students must know what is normal for a particular

student should take time off to rest and recover from minor

helicopter.

ailments such as a heavy cold. In any cases of doubt, medical

Anthropometry. Students are likely to come in all shapes

•

assistance should be sought and if there is any doubt about the

and sizes. It is important that they adopt the correct

illness, the advice of an authorised medical examiner (AME)

posture while flying and that seats (including restraints)

must be sought. Flight instructors should look out for the

and pedals are correctly adjusted so that they can reach

welfare of their students and be able to offer the correct advice.

the controls while seated comfortably and correctly.

Apart from the everyday risks of spreading germs to other

Back pain is common in helicopters can be exacerbated

people which is socially most undesirable, the flying

by poor posture and vibration. A student suffering from

environment poses additional risks. It is an alien environment

back pain will not be able to concentrate on the task in

for the human body and flying instructors should take every

hand.

opportunity to cover aeromedical aspects of flight with their

Medication. Only medication approved by an AME

•

students, possibly including them routinely in pre-flight TEM

should be taken. Over the counter medicines may cause

and briefings.

drowsiness and should not be used unless specific advice

Some particular physiological considerations which the

has been obtained. In some cases, the real issue may be

instructor has to monitor and brief student on are shown in the

that the medication is being taken to treat a minor ailment

list below:

such as a headache or cold. In such cases the question of

whether the student should be flying at all is the crucial

• Altitude Effects. Air pressure and barotrauma; lack of

one to ask. Again instruction and example falls to the

oxygen - hypoxia and its effect on night vision.

instructor.

Instructors need to be on the alert for signs of barotrauma

(notably pain from the ears and sinus pain typically in the

•

Alcohol and Drugs. The rules for flying after imbibing

descent) particularly during autorotations.

alcohol are more stringent than for motoring in many

European countries. The only safe advice is not to fly for

• Eyesight. It is important to understand the limitations of

24 hours after drinking and even then if the drinking

human vision in order to carry out effective lookout.

concerned was heavy, then traces of alcohol will still be in

Although the students may have covered this subject in

the blood after 24 hours. Indeed, even after as long as 72

their theoretical knowledge training, they are unlikely to

hours have elapsed following a consumption of alcohol,

have completed the course before their first training

flight. Instructors should therefore devote sufficient time

traces have been found in the endolymph contained in the

semi-circular canals of the ear. The dilution caused by the

to ensuring that the correct techniques are known and

alcohol can lead to disorientation. Clearly, there is no

understood. Many pilots have poor visual scan

techniques. If the correct technique is taught in the first

place for recreational or other non-prescription drugs in

aviation.

place then it will become a habit and transfer positively to

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 42

•

Lack of awareness - radio calls or checklists that go

unanswered

•

Diminished motor skills - sloppy flying, writing that trails

off into nothing as weather reports or clearances are

written down

Obvious tiredness - drooping head, staring or half-closed

•

eyes

Diminished vision - difficulty in focusing

•

Slow reactions

•

Short-term memory problems - unable to remember a

clearance long enough to repeat it or write it down

accurately

•

Channelled concentration fixation on a single, possibly

unimportant issue to the neglect of others and failure to

maintain an overview of the flight

• Easily distracted by trivial problems or the other extreme

either of which coul indicate fatigue

•

Poor instrument flying - difficulty in focusing on one

instrument, fixation on one instrument to the detriment of

scan, drifting in and out oif sleep

•

Increased mistakes - poor judgement and poor decisions

or even no decisions at all

Abnormal moods - mood swings, depressed, periodically

•

elated and energetic, diminished standards

All of the above focus on the student but, the helicopter flight

instructors also at risk. Flying instruction is a demanding

profession. Often working hours are long and the breaks

between briefings and flights short or non-existent. Nutritional

opportunities can be equally few and far between so in the flight

instructors commendable care for his or her students there is a

possibility that they will neglect their own circumstances. So

here again, the solution must be one of setting a good example

and taking care of oneself too!

The IMSAFE acronym is a useful tool to assess your fitness

before every flight in the same way as you assess your aircraft's

airworthiness.

PYSCHOLOGICAL FACTORS

While it is not necessary for a helicopter flight instructor to be a

certified psychologist, it is helpful to learn how to analyse

student behaviour before and during each flying lesson. This

ability helps a flight instructor develop and use appropriate

techniques for instruction.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 43

BEHAVIOURAL ATTITUDES

You are likely to be discouraged when you discover that a well

DEGREES OF EMOTION

planned lesson does not teach all students with equal

For our purposes, we will divide the various levels of emotion

effectiveness. Usually, however, you soon see that this is

into three categories:

natural. One manifestation of the difference among students is

that they seldom learn at the same rate. Differences in rates of

MILD EMOTION: This is the everyday type of emotion such as a

learning are based on differences in intelligence, backg2round,

small amount of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with our jobs, our

experience, interest, desire to learn, and countless

personal lives, or with other people. Mild emotions affect

psychological, emotional, and physical factors. You must

motivation.

recognise that students are different. You must recognise that

STRONG EMOTION: This degree of emotion is not felt very

this fact dictates how much you can teach, at what rate, and

often in everyday life, but it causes most of our emotional

when.

problems in flying training. Strong emotions cause a large

amount of tension in an individual, and no one can live or work

normally with prolonged tension. However, strong emotion can

PERSONALITY DIFFERENCES

be coped with.

ATTITUDE: Students have their own personal attitudes and

DISRUPTIVE EMOTION: These are very severe, deep rooted

methods of thinking. Thinking patterns and reactions to the

emotional tensions that disrupt logical action and clear thinking.

various philosophies and types of training must be reconciled.

Persons suffering disruptive emotions usually require the

The instructor must consider whether the attitude is caused by

assistance of a psychiatrist. However, these problems occur so

hereditary or environmental factors. The root of attitude

rarely that you need only be aware that they exist.

problems may sometimes be found in the general attitude of

the school staff.

INTEREST: People sense ideas and activities that possess

special values, uses or attractions for them. Three general

categories of interest are the vocational, educational, and

avocational. The interests of students in different aspects of

flying will differ. Efforts should be made to take advantage of

these, and to channel students into different areas as needed.

EMOTIONS

Emotions play an important part in the training of a student. You

must know the kinds of emotions and the techniques needed

to control them. Most of us think of emotion as overpowering

feelings such as passion, hatred, or grief. These are not typical

of the entire range of emotions. Everything we do, or with

which we come in contact, is coloured by some emotional

feeling. Emotions vary from mildly pleasant or unpleasant

feelings, all the way up to feelings so intense that physical and

mental activity is paralysed. All of us experience a wide variety

of emotions every day. Rarely do they bother us or interfere

with our ability or willingness to do our job. However, students

in flight training are in an abnormal emotional condition.

Students are in unfamiliar situations where accelerated

pressures are experienced over a long period of time. The

learning situation tends to intensify the students’ emotional

problems more than we would expect in everyday life. You

cannot ignore this problem but must learn how to recognise

and overcome it.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 44

THE EFFECT OF STRONG EMOTIONAL

TENSION

A person cannot tolerate strong emotional tension over any

length of time. It causes extreme nervousness, irritability, and

an inability to relax. It interferes with normal eating and sleeping

habits and makes the subject generally miserable. Everyone,

either consciously or subconsciously, tries to relieve prolonged

emotional tension.

The effect of emotional tension on learning depends on the

method chosen by the student for relieving it. If the problem is

attacked directly, and solved, then learning is enhanced. For

example, students may have strong feelings of frustration or

worry due to deficiency in one phase of the flight-training

program. If they work harder, study more, and receive extra

instruction, progress will probably become satisfactory and

tension will disappear. On the other hand, if the real problem is

avoided, an escape mechanism may be used to reduce tension

and learning will suffer.

USE OF EMOTIONAL ESCAPE MECHANISMS

Students in flight training will often use the following escape

mechanisms. Occasional use of escape mechanisms is normal

in everyone, but their over use indicates strong emotional

problems. You, therefore, must learn to identify the symptoms

that indicate that a student is using escape mechanisms.

•

PROJECTION: transferring the blame from oneself to

someone or something else.

•

RATIONALISATION: finding a believable excuse for one’s

actions or failure; trying to justify unjustifiable behaviour

RESIGNATION: becoming resigned to the situation;

•

giving up

FLIGHT: physically or mentally removing oneself from the

•

tension-producing situation.

AGGRESSION: taking one’s tension out on someone else

•

by becoming belligerent or argumentative.

A student’s over use of one or more of the escape

mechanisms, along with other symptoms, may indicate an

emotional problem. You should not wait until emotional tension

becomes extreme before taking corrective action.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 45

HUMAN INFORMATION

PROCESSING

Human information processing theory uses the analogy of a

computer system to describe the working of the brain. The

model created visualises the brain processing incoming

information in the same way as the central processor does in a

computer. The information is collected by the senses,

perceived, stored and transported to the Central Decision

Maker. The Central Decision Maker takes care of our thinking.

It can only deal with one thing at a time and therefore has to

tackle things serially before generating the required action.

This fundamental process of conscious decision making is also

called cognition. The way in which this model of the brain

copes with sensory overload caused by the Central Decision

Maker's limitation of only being able to do one thing at a time is

because many of the other demands do not need conscious

decision making and can be controlled by motor programme or

skills.

Knowledge of this process is useful to the flight instructor it will

explain certain things about the way in which we learn. If

students are concentrating hard on a task other stimuli will be

ignored because the Central Decision Maker is fully occupied

with the cognitive task in hand. Other things will go unnoticed.

This can lead to a situation called inattentional blindness. Where

other sometimes quite obvious things are just not seen.

Instructors need to remember this in high workload situations

both for themselves and the safety of the aircraft and crew but

also when imparting instruction.

It is also useful to understand the limitations of the short-term

memory which can only hold 7 ± 2 pieces of information. This is

important to realise when giving instructions to students and

wondering why they cannot retain it. There are ways in which

this capacity can be increased by 'chunking' pieces of

information. Remembered in this way it is possible to make

room for one or two additional pieces of information.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 47

•

Simulator Training. Simulators are particularly effective in

DEVELOPMENT OF JUDGEMENT

training decision making skills as high workload and high

AND DECISION MAKING

stress scenarios with poor or conflicting information can

easily be created in complete safety. It is recognised that

As early as possible in their training, pilots should be made

simulators are not readily accessible during PPL(H)

aware of the characteristics and limitations of human decision

training but they represent a highly effective training

making. Flight instructors should emphasise the importance of

resource which could be used if available. For multi

maintaining Situational Awareness, of prioritising responses to

engine and/or multi crew operations, use of simulators is

undesired aircraft states (1. Aviate -> 2. Navigate ->

the norm for scenario based training.

Communicate), and of contingency planning (What if

•

Decision Making Training. As early as possible in their

something goes wrong during this flight?).

training, pilots should be made aware of the

The following strategies can improve decision making. Training

characteristics and limitations of human decision making.

pilots using these solutions will allow them to make better

Instructors should emphasise the importance of

decisions. Teaching them at the beginning of a pilot's training

maintaining Situational Awareness at all times and of

and practising them regularly throughout the course will create

prioritising responses to undesired aircraft states and

a strong and almost unshakeable impression which will stay

emergences. (1. Aviate -> 2. Navigate -> 3 .

with pilots for the rest of their lives (Thorndike's Laws of

Communicate).

Primacy and Exercise).

Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). If students are

•

introduced to clear and concise SOPs from the start of

their training and the instructor sets an example by

following them rigorously thereby preventing any conflict

Training Leaflet HE

in the minds of the student of the don't do as I do, do as I

produced by the then EHEST

say variety, the use of SOPs will become ingrained and

and available free of charge on

become a form of Rule-based behaviour which is known

line is an excellent starting

to be less error prone than Knowledge-based behaviour.

point for Decision Making

•

Pre-Flight Planning. It is known that planning conducted

training and an invaluable

prior to a flight in a low-stress environment can enable

resource for helicopter flight

pilots to produce a safe strategy for the flight, selecting

instructors.

safe routes, establishing decision points for each flight

phase and employing collaborative decision making with

Decision Making Aids. Decision aids are easy to

•

other agencies so that a sound plan is made which in turn

remember lists intended to support the decision maker

will reduce the workload when airborne. Teaching

and to avoid errors. They are particularly beneficial in the

students to carry out thorough pre-flight planning is a key

case of critical and stressful situations. If they are to be of

part of the flight instructor's job and it will normally be

use in the future, pilots need to use them as a matter of

done well. However, particularly during flights early in

course. Flight instructors could, for example teach the

the syllabus there can be missed learning opportunities

FADEC model in scenarios or situations occurring during

when instructors don't share their own strategies with

training for example: lost procedure during navigation

students because of time pressures or the fear of

training or dealing with an emergencies that do not call for

overloading the student early in in the course.

an immediate landing

Single Pilot Crew Resource Management (SRM) Training.

•

SRM training is a form of Crew Resource Management

for single pilot operations. It helps pilots to maintain

situational awareness by managing the flight and

navigation tasks and to enhance the social skills needed

to communicate and interact with, for example, the

instructor and ATC and passengers in the future.

Threat and Error Management (TEM) Training. TEM is

•

covered in some detail in the next section. It is a useful

and effective way of developing judgement and

enhancing decision making skills.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 48

THREAT AND ERROR MANAGEMENT

THREAT AND ERROR MANAGEMENT (TEM)

DEFINITIONS

TEM is an operational concept applied to the conduct of a flight

ACAS RA/TA;

that is more than the traditional role of airmanship, as it provides

Un-forecast bird activity;

for a structured and pro-active approach for pilots to use in

Laser attacks;

identifying and managing threats and errors that may affect the

safety of the flight. The International Civil Aviation Organization

Sloping landing areas;

(ICAO) and EASA Part FCL require that Human Factors and

Threat and Error Management (TEM) be introduced into all pilot

• Latent: Lastly, some threats may not be directly obvious

training.

to, or observable by, flight crews immersed in flight

There are three basic components in the TEM model,

operations, and may need to be uncovered by safety

from the perspective of flight crews:

analysis. These are considered latent threats and may

include organisational weaknesses and the psychological

THREATS. Threats are defined as events or errors that occur

state of the pilot:

beyond the influence of the flight crew, increase operational

complexity and which must be managed to maintain the

Organisational culture/changes;

margins of safety. During typical flight operations, flight crews

Documentation error;

have to manage various contextual complexities. The TEM

model considers 3 types of threats, anticipated, unanticipated

Equipment design issues;

and latent which all have the potential to negatively affect flight

Operational pressures/ delays;

operations by reducing margins of safety.

Optical illusions;

Fatigue / rostering;

• Anticipated: Some threats can be anticipated, since they

Complacency;

are expected or known to the flight crew:

Over or under confidence;

Thunderstorms / wind shear and other forecast

inclement weather;

Lack of recency/ proficiency

Congested airport / heliport;

ERRORS. Errors are defined actions or inactions by the flight

Obstacles/Wires;

crew that lead to deviations from organisational or flight crew

Complex ATC clearances;

intentions or expectations. Unmanaged or mismanaged errors

Out of wind approaches/landings;

frequently lead to undesired aircraft states. Errors in the

operational context thus tend to reduce the margins of safety

Air temperature/DA extremes;

and increase the probability of adverse events.

Mass and balance;

UNDESIRED AIRCRAFT STATES (UAS). Undesired aircraft

states are flight crew-induced aircraft position or speed

• Unanticipated: Some threats can occur unexpectedly,

deviations, misapplication of flight controls, or incorrect

suddenly and without warning. In this case, flight crews

systems configuration, associated with a reduction in margins

must apply skills and knowledge acquired through

of safety. Undesired aircraft states that result from ineffective

training and experience:

threat or error management may lead to compromising

In-flight aircraft malfunction;

situations and reduce margins of safety in flight operations.

Often considered at the cusp of becoming an incident or

Automation - anomalies /over reliance;

accident, undesired aircraft states must be managed by flight

Un-forecast weather:

crews.

ATC re-routing / error / non-standard phraseology

navigation aid un-serviceability;

Ground handling errors;

Wires;

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 49

TEACHING THREAT MANAGEMENT

Instructors should stress that threats (and errors) are a part of

A good technique to teach the student to recognise these

everyday aviation operations that must be managed through all

threats is to:

the phases of flight:

Prompt (what is the threat)

•

Question (how could it be mitigated)?

•

Pre flight: As part of the airmanship element of the

briefing, time should be spent identifying possible

•

Direct (do this)

threats and errors associated with the flight in order to

•

Physical intervention if necessary (take control)

plan and develop countermeasures. For example a

possible threat in the circuit is other aircraft which could

•

Post flight: Reconsider what threats, errors and/or UAS

lead to a mid air collision. Possible errors that could lead

were encountered during the flight. Ask the student how

to this UAS are: spending too much time with 'head in'

well they were managed and what could be done

not looking out, looking out in the wrong area, not

differently to improve the management of similar threats

scanning properly, not listening out on the radio. Counter-

and errors on future flights to assist with the

measures could be to develop a crew strategy for

development of improved TEM strategies.

lookout, adopting a scan technique taking into account

TEACHING ERROR MANAGEMENT

climbing/descending/turning, listening out on the RT for

other traffic calling ATC for traffic information etc).

The acknowledgement that errors will occur has changed

• In flight: Brief on the planned procedures before take-

the emphasis in aviation operations to error recognition

off and prior to commencing each significant flight

and management rather than just error prevention. Rather

sequence including anticipated threats and counter-

than just pointing out errors to the student as they occur,

measures in briefings. Prioritise tasks and manage

instructors should show how to minimise the chances of

workload to avoid being overloaded (e.g. use checklists);

errors happening, and then if they do happen, recognise

Identify any UAS to the student and manage

the fact and implement strategies to manage them.

accordingly. Recover aircraft to safe flight

Instructors must afford the student the opportunity to

configuration safety margins before dealing with other

recognise a committed error rather than intervening as soon as

problems.

they see an error committed, they must wait (if time allows) to

Unanticipated threats are most likely in flight. These

see if the error is identified by the trainee. If it is not, the

threats are generally managed by applying skills and

instructor should then analyse why the error happened, why it

knowledge acquired through training and flight

was not recognised and how to prevent future occurrences.

experience. Typically, a practice engine failure or

Mitigators that are in place such as checklists, SOPs and

simulated system failure are methods of training a pilot

aviation rules must be applied and complied with. Whether a

to manage unexpected threats. Knowledge and

checklist is used from memory or read, they are provided to

repetition prepare a trainee to manage such events

enhance safety (by helping reduce errors) and instructors must

should they occur for real in flight.

continually stress their importance and accept no deviations to

Instructors should develop training scenarios, 'what if'

its application and terminology.

questions or examples that will address the different

categories of threats and thereby develop the trainee’s

ability to detect and respond appropriately to threats .

During flight training the instructor must identify

unanticipated threats such as incorrect ATC instructions,

traffic hazards or adverse weather and point them out

to the trainee should they fail to identify them. Then it

is important to question the trainee to see what steps

they could take to mitigate the threats, ensuring that

the action is completed in the time available.

EHEST training leaflet HE8

covers the theory of Threat

& Error Management and

provides practical advice on

how to teach the subject.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 50

TEACHING UNDESIRED AIRCRAFT STATE

SPECIFIC HAZARDS INVOLVED IN SIMULATING

MANAGEMENT

SYSTEMS FAILURES AND MALFUNCTIONS IN

THE AIRCRAFT DURING FLIGHT

Unmanaged or mismanaged threats or errors may result in a

It should be the aim of all instructors to return an aircraft back to

UAS. Ideally, students should be taught to manage threats and

the dispersal in the same state as they found it. In order to do

errors before a UAS develops. During flight training, instructors

this they should use the principles of TEM described above to

will be dealing with many undesired aircraft states as trainees

assess the possible threats they could encounter during the

develop their flying skills.

flight. In the case of teaching emergency and abnormal

In this context, instructors have the dual role of practising TEM

procedures the students and their actions (or inactions) could

by ensuring that undesired aircraft states are managed and then

be considered as a source of threat and appropriate mitigations

teaching trainees how to do the same. Because students may

should be taken into account before and during flight before and

not have the manipulative and cognitive skills of a qualified pilot,

during the flight.

they will often not meet specified flight tolerances or

Flight instructors are required to have completed the Teaching

procedures.

and Learning Syllabus laid out in Part 1 of this Guide. The

Some typical examples would be:

syllabus includes the Specific Hazards involved in simulating

systems failures and malfunctions in aircraft during flight which

• hover taxiing too fast;

lists the following items:

• too fast or slow on final approach; or

•

Importance of touch drills

• inability to maintain altitude or heading during straight

•

Situational awareness

and level flight.

•

Adherence to correct procedures

Although such examples would be classified as UAS when

More detail can be found in EHEST training leaflet HE11

committed by a qualified pilot, they are not unusual events

illustrated below.

during flight training. The difference is that the instructor should

be aware of the threats and errors and should not let an

undesired aircraft state develop into an undesired outcome (i.e.

an accident or incident).

A critical aspect that instructors must teach is the switch from

error management to UAS management. During the error

management phase, a pilot can become fixated on determining

the cause of an error and forget the old adage 'aviate, navigate,

communicate'.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 51

IMPORTANCE OF TOUCH DRILLS

'Touch Drills' are used when an aircraft system is identified by

touching (or being pointed to) without further action being

taken. It is used to ensure that a pilot can in a timely manner

correctly identify and reach a relevant system control without

actually manipulating it and therefore preventing inadvertent

de-selection (or selection) of the system. Prior to any flight

where simulated emergency drills are to be performed it is

essential that the instructor or examiner establishes the

student's understanding of how, and when touch drills, are to

be performed in the flight. The instructor/examiner should at all

times monitor the student's actions to ensure that they do not

inadvertently activate, or deactivate a system.

SITUATIONAL AWARENESS

As the Instructor/Examiner is ultimately responsible for the

safety of the aircraft he should ensure that it is not placed in a

dangerous situation. An ongoing assessment of potential

hazards should be conducted of the immediate operating

environment to include:

the proximity of obstacles (including the ground),

other traffic (as avoiding action may not be possible),

escape routes,

the terrain over which is being operated (in case a landing

is required),

the weather (in particular the cloud base, wind velocity,

visibility and temperature).

aircraft operating limits.

During initial instruction and demonstrations the student will be

concentrating on dealing with the emergency and

consequently his situational awareness may be compromised.

However as the training progresses, and during testing,

situational awareness will be assessed.

ADHERENCE TO CORRECT PROCEDURES

The FM or ATO training manual will often state the conditions or

techniques to be used for training which should be adhered to

for example:

Weight, Altitude, Temperature charts

MAUM to be used

Maximum speeds to be used

Training limitations

Minimum heights

Crew composition

Areas/ground to be used

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 52

TRAINING ADMINISTRATION

The importance of keeping good instructional records cannot

be emphasised enough. Well-kept records will ensure that a

student's progress can be tracked and adjusted as necessary.

This becomes all the more important when the student flies

irregularly or with more than one instructor so that they can be

reviewed and the instruction picked up seamlessly by the next

instructor. 'What did you do last time? Is a question that

should not be asked in a reputable training establishment

unless used as a light-hearted icebreaker because the flight

instructor should already be familiar with the student's training

records and requirements and already have formulated a lesson

plan before the briefing gets underway. This said, it is perfectly

permissible and good practice to ascertain from students any

areas that they wish to revise or repeat because of perceived

weakness.

Training records also provide a legal record of the student's

training and will be retained by the ATO or DTO for a specified

period. An ATO/DTO can be called upon to produce the records

in the sorry event of an accident involving the student in years to

come. It is a fact of life today that legal process invariably takes

place in the aftermath of a serious accident and the courts will

wish to be satisfied that all the required training for the licence

took place and was delivered in accordance with the ATO's

manual and the rules and regulations appertaining at the time.

FLIGHT OR THEORETICAL

KNOWLEDGE INSTRUCTIONAL

RECORDS

Filling in these forms requires some practice and training. The

report should contain all the timing and other detail such as

The required records will be set out in the ATO's Manual or as

aircraft type and registration, the date of the flight, what was

per a DTO's Verified Training Programme.

covered and details of the weather. The most important part is

A full set of records will include records of each flight

the textual record of the flight. Completing this section calls for

undertaken. Normally these will be kept with all the other

a succinct summary of the flight and the training given. How

paperwork for the student in a course record folder which may

the student coped with the task; what was done well and what

also include personal and contact details, including next of kin; a

needs further work or revision. It is useful to make reference to

copy of the student's medical certificate, theoretical

basic qualities here. For example, Airmanship, Division of

knowledge training and exam results. It is helpful to include a

Attention and Control Touch. In the General comments box

record of any student's pre-solo essential knowledge quiz

shown on this form the instructor could include an assessment

results or similar together with copies of the required pre solo

of the sortie using a guide issued by the organisation together

cross county authorisation certificates.

with a recommendation for the next lesson.

The details of instructional flight reports vary from organisation

It is good practice to copy any scores and assessments into a

to organisation to suit individual preferences and

taxonomy at the front of the folder. The aim of this is to provide

circumstances. The mock-up of a typical flight report form

a 'form at a glance' record that is useful to remind the student's

opposite contains most of the information that is likely to be

own instructor of progress to date but is also very useful for a

needed to track student progress.

new instructor and most helpful to Heads of Training so they

can identify students that are struggling and discuss remedial

action with the student's instructor. In the example shown

overleaf or Page 55, the amount of time allocated to each

lesson is broken down into 15 minute blocks. There are other

ways of doing this but it is a simple visual way of presenting the

student's progress through the syllabus.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 54

flight under the guidance of their instructor. In this way, the

PILOT'S PERSONAL FLYING

entries and addition can be checked against the flying record

LOG BOOK

folder to ensure that they match. This can save much

It is a legal requirement for a pilots to record details of the flights

frustrating work at the end of a course! It may be save time in

that they have made. The personal flying log book is often a

the long run if entries are made in pencil initially and then 'inked'

source of great pride to the student and instructors will need to

over when the accuracy of each entry has been confirmed.

teach them how to complete it. Although completing it may

There is a wide selection of personal flying log books available

appear straightforward to the student, there are details that will

from aviation equipment suppliers and bookshops and the

need explanation, for example, how flight time is recorded,

layout varies among them. The ATO or DTO may have a

what is meant by the holder's operating capacity and other

preference but it is a good idea to check that the log book is

details that may not be apparent to the new aviator. The

suitable for the type of flying that the student is likely to do in the

National Aviation Authority responsible for issuing the licence

future.

will check the entries in the log book to verify that the

This example below is taken from Part FCL,

requirements for issue of a PPL (H) or LAPL(H) have been

fulfilled when checking the licence application. (The same

The Personal flying record can be maintained electronically

applies to CPL(H) candidates undergoing instruction at ATO but

which offers advantages particularly in gathering data such as

it is assumed that by this stage they will be familiar with the use

time on type or periodic summaries of flying hours. However, it

of their log book).

is recommended that at least for the period of pre-licence

training a physical log book is maintained so that students

It is very important therefore that all details are correct from the

understands the procedure and process for recording flight

outset. It may be a good idea for the log book to be kept with

details.

students' flying records, at least initially, and filled in after each

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 56

THE FLIGHT OR GROUND

CURRICULUM

A course of training is a complete series of studies leading to

the attainment of a specific goal. This could be a course leading

to the award of a PPL(H). Such a course will have learning

objectives, a syllabus of instruction and course outline. The

theoretical knowledge requirements will be described in detail

together with the method of evaluation by exams. Similarly,

airborne instruction will be covered detail in accordance with

the Part FCL syllabus of flying exercises as set out in Part 2 of

this Guide.

It is likely that an ATO will be offering a range of courses which

might include: LAPL(H); PPL(H); Night Rating; additional Type

Ratings, FI ratings and CPL(H) courses. Each one of these

courses will be described in detail in the ATO Manual setting

out the syllabi for theoretical knowledge and flying exercise

training and how they will be covered in the course together

with the supporting learning objectives, syllabus of instruction

and course outline forming a course training package. Taken

together the associated course training packages for the

different courses on offer would be described as the ATO's

Curriculum which could be further broken down to describe the

__^{flight or ground curriculums as required.}

STUDY MATERIAL

It is usual for organisations to have a preferred list of text books,

study guides, leaflets, handouts and other supporting material

to support its curriculum. These are listed in the ATO Manual

and students should be directed to them for further reading and

study.

The material may differ from that which the FI(H) used in his or

her own training. If this is the case, then it is very important that

flight instructors make themselves fully conversant with the

material that the ATO references in its manual so that they

understand what sources their students are using. They can

then set study to assignments based on these sources for the

students can use in preparation for their next lesson and for

revision afterwards.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 57

OFFICIAL FORMS

Each ATO/DTO will have a series of forms that it requires

students and instructors to complete. A description of these

forms and the student's responsibilities for their completion

will form part of the initial student briefing adding to this as and

when additional documentation is required.

In addition, National Aviation Authorities will require official

forms to be completed for the issue of licences and type

ratings. Students may find the bureaucratic process associated

with this form-filling which may also be done on-line, daunting.

A good flight instructors will assist the student to navigate their

way round these official forms by explaining what needs to be

done, how to do it and when to do it. It is therefore necessary

for instructors to have up-to-date information at their fingertips

so that they can do this confidently and competently. If their

instructor seems unsure who to deal with these fundamental

issues, then students will quickly lose confidence.

There are other forms with which the student must be familiar,

for example flight plans, met briefing forms, customs forms and

others depending on national procedures and circumstance.

Again instructors must ensure that their students are familiar

with all the relevant pre and post flight documentation needed

for safe and legal flying.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 58

THE FLIGHT MANUAL OR

AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS

EQUIVALENT DOCUMENT

In the same way as flight instructors are responsible for

ensuring that their students understand flight authorisation and

(FOR EXAMPLE, OWNER'S MANUAL OR

training documents, they also need to cover helicopter

PILOT'S OPERATING HANDBOOK)

acceptance, including the technical log (if applicable), certificate

of maintenance and helicopter serviceability documents. This

The flight manual (FM) or equivalent is the authoritative

is covered in Exercise 2 - PREPARATION FOR AND ACTION

document that flight instructors must use for all training.

AFTER FLIGHT but will need constant re-enforcement

Checklists must follow the exact sequence laid down in the FM

throughout the course.

as should all the procedures laid down. It is the authoritative

source for all normal and emergency procedures and students

The importance of making accurate entries in the technical log

should be completely familiar with the document. The FM is

and for checking on the serviceability of the aircraft, noting

often expensive and it is required to be kept in the aircraft

when servicing is due and how many hours are available before

thereby limiting student access at times. Ideally, spare copies

the aircraft is due for planned servicing. If the instructor and

(which are kept up to date) should be available in briefing rooms

student use the MATED sequence of pre-flight briefing checks,

these details can be covered in the briefing under 'A' for aircraft.

and used during pre-flight briefings and knowledge tests.

The FM is also the authoritative source of performance

information. Flight instructors are recommended to devise

THE PRIVATE PILOT'S LICENCE

scenario based exercises to test knowledge of weight and

balance calculations and assess aircraft performance.

REGULATIONS

Licence regulations are quite involved and they do change from

FLIGHT AUTHORISATION

time to time. Students expect their instructors to have a good

knowledge of the relevant regulations and be able to answer

PAPERS

their questions authoritatively without having to refer

All flights from an ATO or DTO need to be controlled from a

continuously to Part FCL, other instructors or the National

Aviation Authority. This said, if there is any doubt in the mind of

practical point of view. In smaller organisations, it will be much

easier to keep track of aircraft movements but in a busy ATO

instructors that the advice or information they are is about to

impart may not be 100% accurate then, it must be corroborated

operating several helicopters, it could be possible to miss the

immediately. It would be good instructional practice to make

fact that a helicopter due back at a certain time is late returning,

thus delaying the start of overdue action. In addition to the

the point that all aviation information should be checked with

the relevant source document(s) before basing a decision upon

flight safety reasons, it is essential to confirm that students and

instructors are authorised and competent to carry out the

it. It is therefore as important for instructors to be able to find all

training that has been briefed. There are additional

applicable regulations quickly and accurately.

considerations in the case of first solo flights which are covered

in Exercise 15 in Part 2 of the Guide. Flight instructors are

responsible for ensuring that their students understand the

importance of flight authorisation and they have a complete

grasp of the exercise that they have been set, where they have

been authorised to fly it together with the minimum safe

altitude and any other restrictions.

A good flight authorisation system offers the additional

safeguard of checking that all the necessary up-to-date pre-

flight information has been included in the brief such as

NOTAM, Met together with any recently issued notices. It is

good practice, to include a check sheet to confirm that this has

been done. Similarly, there are instances when additional

authorisation papers are required in the case of solo navigation

exercises confirming that the student has successfully

completed the necessary preparatory instruction and been

briefed what to do in the case of emergencies and worsening

weather.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 60

FLIGHT SAFETY

Flight safety is a vital aspect of flight training. Both aircrew and

ground crew must be aware of the need for correct safety

practices. You are in a position to reduce incorrect, unsafe and

illegal practices. You are also in a position to influence the

attitudes and disciplines of future pilots in this industry. To be

successful, a flight safety program requires the correct attitude,

proper supervision, rigid enforcement, and proper training.

Your student learns by example: YOU MUST SET THIS

EXAMPLE!

An experienced instructor is an effective supporter of the

principles of good airmanship and flight discipline. As you gain

experience, learn to recognise unsafe practices and do

something to correct the situation. Practise flight safety by:

• being alert to unsafe practices and taking the

appropriate action

• following up when you see an unsafe practice by

informing the people involved that they have been

seen

• promoting the principles of effective flight safety to

students and other aircrew and groundcrew.

Flight safety consciousness by all personnel must become the

fashion. Unsafe procedures must be watched for, identified,

and eliminated by firm and consistent action. Throughout your

instruction, stress the importance of being fuel conscious, the

need for proper lookout and the danger of having loose articles

in the helicopter.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 61

A CHECKLIST FOR GOOD INSTRUCTION

Each instructor should:

11.

Tell the students specifically what is required of them

Appear enthusiastic about the subject being taught.

during the lesson and at the end of the lesson (the ‘what’ of

12.

Use speech variation in rate, volume and pitch.

the introduction).

13.

Have students answer questions related to the objective(s)

Identify the main teaching points for the student by:

for the lesson during the presentation of new material.

(a) using visual support (i.e. whiteboard, orientation

14.

Use correct questioning techniques.

board, or other visual aids)

15.

Use a variety of training aids to appeal to as many senses as

(b) verbally referring to the visual aids.

possible whenever these aids help to achieve the

objective(s) of the lesson.

Tell the student the purpose of the lesson and stress the

advantages of the new knowledge or skill (the ‘why’ of the

16.

Provide sufficient meaningful practice of the main points of

introduction).

the lesson so that students confidently achieve the

objective.

Tell students where the lesson fits into the overall picture.

17.

Allot time relative to the importance of the teaching point.

Relate the lesson to the student’s past and/or future

experiences (the ‘where’ of the introduction).

18.

Identify and correct errors or mistakes made by the

students at the time they occur, or as soon thereafter as

Confirm that students are at the required level before

practicable.

having them learn new material.

19.

Use clearly worded explanations.

Present the new material in stages.

20.

Deliver the lesson in a logical sequence.

Introduce each stage of the lesson and provide a link or

bridge between stages.

21.

Conduct periodic reviews of critical areas of the lesson.

Obtain student feedback throughout the lesson by:

22.

Summarise the main points of each stage.

23.

Evaluate level of student learning at the end of each stage.

(a) asking questions

24.

Test students on the main points of the entire lesson

(b) observing student performance of a skill

towards the end of the lesson.

25.

Provide a final summary that links all stages to the

objective(s) of the lesson.

(d) taking student questions.

26.

Re-motivate students by telling them how the new

10. Respond to feedback by:

knowledge or skill will benefit them.

(a) answering questions

27.

Ensure they are well prepared for the programmed lesson

(b) stopping students from doing a step of a skill

prior to meeting with student.

incorrectly

(d) asking questions

(e) correcting the student if an error has been made

(f) explaining why the student’s performance is

incorrect

(g) using verbal support

(h) re-teaching (if necessary)

(I)

praising students for good work.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 62

INTRODUCTION

GROUND AND AIR INSTRUCTION EXERCISES

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

This part is presented as a series of exercises. These are

This is the presentation given by the flight instructor when

specific skills that either singly or in a group form a convenient

introducing a new exercise. Ideally you should give it in the form

unit for the student to learn.

of a mass briefing and no more than 24 hours before the related

training flight.

In most cases, when presenting a new exercise to a student,

you should be able to follow the sequence shown. However the

Preparatory instruction is presented as follows:

numbering of exercises should be used primarily as an exercise

reference list and as a broad instructional sequencing guide.

Aim

Therefore the demonstrations and practices need not

State the aim in terms of not so much what you, the

necessarily be given in the order listed. The actual order and

content will depend upon the following interrelated factors:

instructor, are about to teach, but what your student is

about to learn.

(i)

the applicant's progress and ability;

Review

(ii)

the weather conditions affecting the flight;

Review previously learned facts. This will generally help

students to understand and assimilate the new skills and

(iii)

the flight time available;

knowledge they are about to acquire. This is a good time

(iv)

instructional technique considerations;

to discuss any related problems they may have.

(v)

the local operating environment;

Motivation

(vi) applicability of the exercises to the helicopter.

Give students a good reason why they should learn this

skill. Use specific terms to suit the individual student and

Ground instruction in weather interpretation, planning and

training situation.

route assessment, decision making on encountering a

Airmanship / TEM

degraded visual environment (DVE) including reversing

Airmanship points will vary with the type of training

course or conducting a precautionary landing should be

helicopter and local conditions. Always stress the safety

incorporated throughout the course. Wherever possible,

flight simulation should be used to demonstrate to student

and TEM aspects of any training.

pilots the effects of flight into DVE and to enhance their

Teaching Points

understanding and need for avoidance of this potentially

These are self-explanatory. They are sometimes listed in

fatal flight regime.

broad terms, so as to cover all training helicopter and

Each exercise is presented in the following manner:

conditions. Occasionally you will need to amend them to

your specific needs.

GROUND SCHOOL

Confirmation

This is a list of subjects that the student should have learned or

This is a reminder to you to ask the student appropriate

should be familiar with before the preparatory instruction is

questions to confirm that learning has taken place and

given. These points should not form part of the preparatory

that the air exercise is likely to be effective. Give students

instruction or the pre-flight briefing.

ample opportunity to ask you questions so as to remove

any doubts or problems they might have.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 64

PRE-FLIGHT BRIEFING

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

This is a separate part of the ground presentation. It should

These are aimed at helping you in your role as an instructor. The

precede all flights, whether there is a new exercise to be

points mentioned should not be included in your ground or air

covered or not. It is also particularly important when sending a

presentations.

student solo.

Points to be covered include:

•

local weather and meteorological conditions

•

the helicopter to be used, its fuel state, C of G, servicing

schedule, aircraft documentation and any other relevant

information

•

where the exercises will be conducted including any

airspace , communication, NOTAM considerations

•

take-off time, duration of flight, and estimated landing

time back at base

•

the sequence of exercises to be covered during this flight

•

a review of relevant airmanship CRM and TEM points

•

Threat and Error Management

AIR EXERCISE

This is the recommended sequence of introducing an exercise

to a student. The sequence of further demonstration, practice

and fault analysis will vary from one student to another.

POST-FLIGHT DE-BRIEFING

This follows all flights, dual and solo. Points should include:

•

the student’s assessment of the flight and performance.

•

your assessment of the student’s performance. This

includes both strong and weak points, and advice on how

to correct any repeated errors.

•

answering any student questions.

•

assigning study subjects where appropriate.

•

completion of student training records and taxonomy.

Note: Full and accurate training records are essential to

effective training. It is important that training records

should be completed by the instructor as soon as possible

after completion of the training session. Records for each

individual training session should ideally include a

comprehensive narrative report recording the training

provided, the training medium, weather (if applicable), as

well as the trainee's performance, progress, any

weaknesses and should be signed by the instructor and

the student. See Page 54 for more detail.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 65

1a & 1b

FAMILIARISATION WITH THE HELICOPTER

AND EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Explain:

Familiarise the student with the layout of the school,

•

the cockpit layout and the control system. In the case of

including briefing rooms, crew rooms, etc., introduce him or her

students with fixed wing experience, with particular

to the members of the staff who are associated with the flight

reference to those controls that are new to the student.

training.

the various aircraft systems:

•

Explain the course syllabus and how it will be applied,

the main and tail rotor systems

including details of how, when and where ground school,

preparatory instruction, pre-flight briefings and post-flight

the fuel and oil systems

debriefings are carried out; how dual and solo flights are

the electrical system and avionics equipment

authorised; how progress is monitored; and any other

the hydraulic system (if applicable)

information necessary to the student in his or her day-to-day

attendance at the Approved Training Organisation (ATO).

•

weight and balance.

•

the use of the check lists, drills for normal flight and

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

emergency drills.

Aim:

•

Emergency procedures escape drills and emergency

fire drills.

Exercise 1a: To familiarise the student with:

the Rotorcraft Flight Manual (or Pilot's Operating

•

the characteristics of the helicopter, its external features,

•

Handbook).

cockpit layout, systems, and controls drills, checklists and

procedures

any course material provided by the ATO together with

•

recommended publications for study during the course.

Exercise 1b - Emergency Procedures: To learn the action to

be taken in the event of:

Teaching Points:

•

fire on the ground and in the air,

Cover all the learning points in a logical sequence using the

aircraft as a training aid getting the student to identify the

•

engine, cabin and electrical system fire,

main components and systems of the helicopter while

•

system failures (where appropriate),

explaining their purpose.

escape drills including the location and use of emergency

•

There is a great deal to cover in these two lessons so it is

equipment and exits.

advisable to have the lesson plan readily to hand and work

through each learning point to avoid going into too much

Motivation:

detail at the same time ensuring that all the necessary items

The knowledge gained in this exercise underpins the whole of

have been covered. Whilst too much detail should be avoided

bear in mind that the student will usually be fresh and eager for

the course. Understanding how the helicopter works will make

subsequent lessons easier to understand and save valuable

knowledge so full advantage should be taken of this desire to

learn. Explanations may be simplified if necessary but care

training time both in the air and on the ground.

must be taken to avoid the student forming a false impression

Airmanship / TEM:

of how a system or control works which may be difficult to

correct later.

the use of Checklists,

•

Cover the drills for Engine Fire on Start Up, Engine Fire in

Approaching and leaving a helicopter and procedures to

•

Flight and Electrical Fire in Flight in detail and get the student to

be observed when 'airside' e.g. No Smoking, switch off

practise aircraft escape drills physically rather than just talk

mobile phones,

about them. Discuss other systems failures and avoid

thorough pre-flight inspection,

•

creating a negative impression of helicopter flying by

knowledge of emergency drills, the helicopter's

explaining that these are rare occurrences. However a pilot

•

emergency equipment and fire extinguisher types

must be able to deal with all potential emergencies.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 68

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Show the student a thorough external check on the aircraft,

with particular reference to items that are probably completely

new to him or her (e.g. main rotor, tail rotor, transmission etc)

Reinforce the classroom instruction with practical exercises,

e.g. reading the checklist; practical escape drills; dry use of fire

flighting equipment and physical identification of components

on the helicopter.

Avoid confusing the student by presenting too much detailed

information at this initial stage. The use of models and training

aids is helpful when explaining aircraft systems especially

where it is not easy to visualise how a component works by

looking at its exterior.

Relate this exercise to the student's flying backg2round, level

of experience and general aviation knowledge.

Discuss ground school requirements and how these will be

integrated with flight instruction as a precursor to each air

exercise.

This lesson is often combined with Exercise 2: Preparation for

and Action after Flight.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 1a: Familiarisation with the helicopter:

(A) characteristics of the helicopter, external features;

(B) cockpit layout;

(D) checklists, procedures and controls

Exercise 1b: Emergency procedures:

(A) action if fire on the ground and in the air;

(B) engine, cabin and electrical system fire;

(D) escape drills, location and use of emergency

equipment and exits.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 69

PREPARATION FOR AND ACTION AFTER FLIGHT

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Aim

Documents: Show the student all the documents required by

legislation to be on board the helicopter in flight. Explain the

To introduce the student to the preparation necessary before

significance of each and its bearing on airworthiness.

commencing a flight.

Inspections and checks

Review

While walking to the helicopter, point out that the student

Exercise 1a & 1b

should always note:

Motivation

•

wind velocity.

Stress the fundamental part that proper preparation for flight

•

the presence of any helicopter or obstacle that might

plays in flight safety. Explain that a high percentage of

affect the starting of the rotors or the departure

helicopter accidents and incidents are due to poor preparation

procedure.

and inadequate planning.

the location of any external fire flighting equipment.

Airmanship / TEM

•

Demonstrate the external inspection and the internal checks

• Equipment required

and procedures to be carried out before take-off, as appropriate

• Maps

to type.

Teaching Points

Demonstrate seat position, the operation of the harness and

Explain that the sequence of events leading up to the take-off

emergency exits together with the brace position.

and departure can be conveniently considered in three phases:

Demonstrate starting and warm-up checks, clutch engagement

and starting rotors. Once completed the start up demonstrate

•

flight planning

the power checks used, appropriate to type. Upon completion

•

checking of helicopter documents

of flight demonstrate shut-down checks and procedures

appropriate to type.

• inspection of the helicopter and completion of checks and

procedures.

Discuss the procedures for parking and security of the

helicopter, and completion of the necessary documentation.

Point out that during the initial stages of training, the flight-

planning phase will be covered by the instructor during Pre-

Flight Briefings. As the course progresses, the student will be

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

required to take part increasingly in all the aspects of

Although treated here as a separate exercise, it may be more

preparation for flight.

convenient to combine the introduction to Preparation for Flight

Explain that it is the pilot-in-command’s responsibility to ensure

with Exercise 3.

that the helicopter is safe and fit in all respects for the intended

Student practice of the external inspection, and pre-take-off

flight.

procedures, should be carefully monitored until reliable

Explain the need to wear, or have on board the helicopter,

proficiency is attained, and should be checked at regular

proper survival equipment, clothing and footwear for existing or

intervals thereafter.

anticipated weather conditions in case of an unscheduled

Explain the importance of the student becoming familiar with

landing away from base.

the helicopter and its components when all is normal and

Explain the procedures for the student to follow, should he or

serviceable so that any abnormality becomes readily and easily

she discover a defect or unserviceability in the training

apparent when conducting the pre flight inspection.

helicopter during the inspection or pre-take-off phase. Stress

that students should not fly the helicopter if they have any

doubts about its airworthiness.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 70

AIR EXPERIENCE

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Review Exercise 1- Familiarisation with the Helicopter and

Teaching Points

Exercise 2 - Preparation for and action after flight

It is not intended that the flying instruction given in this period

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

should be formal in nature but students should be allowed to

get accustomed to the sensations of rotary-wing flight, the

Aim

attitudes of the aircraft when climbing and descending and,

To introduce the student to rotary wing flight

particularly, the ability to reduce speed to zero (i.e. hover) in the

air. They may be given the feel of the controls without any

Review

attempt to explain their effects in detail but emphasising their

Exercise 1 & 2

sensitivity and the need not to let go of them.

Motivation

The student should be encouraged to relax and pay particular

attention to the need for fresh air and the action to be taken in

By the end of this lesson the student will be able to make a

the event of feeling unwell. The student should assist in lookout

judgement to continue to learn to fly or not.

throughout the sortie stressing the need to keep the eyes out of

Airmanship / TEM

the cockpit as much as possible and to develop a basic scan

pattern.

• Lookout

Talk about communications in the cockpit environment

• Use of Checklists

avoiding the natural instinct to make eye contact with the other

person in order to maintain external lookout.

• Handing Over/Taking Over Control

This period can also be used to show the student the

• Aircraft Limitations

immediate vicinity of the airfield pointing out the local

Explain

landmarks and providing a general impression of the circuit area

•

how to enter and leave the helicopter with the rotors

with particular reference to any other flying that may be taking

place.

turning

•

that seat belts or harnesses should be done up at all times

during flight

the necessity for positive hand-over and take-over of the

•

controls as discussed in Part 1.

the need for a constant and thorough lookout for other

•

aircraft. Describe the clock method of reporting aircraft to

the other crew member.

the need for flight clothing commensurate with the

•

weather, area of operation and role being performed.

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

• Student will be nervous and tense -encourage the student

to relax and enjoy the flight confusing the student in the

air. A thorough explanation is necessary before flight.

Emphasis must be made on using the horizon and attitude,

not on the instruments

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 72

AIR EXERCISE

Identify the main components of the helicopter. This can be

done during the instructor's external check, but care should be

taken not to confuse the student with too many details.

Seat the student in the pilot's position in the helicopter and give

a full passenger and crew briefing. Explain the general function

of the controls and instruments. Demonstrate adjustment of

the controls for comfort and safety, as applicable to type.

Carry out a short familiarisation flight, pointing out prominent

landmarks and giving the student an opportunity to handle the

controls in cruising flight. Student performance should not be

criticised or corrected at this stage and ensure all checks are

completed by using a checklist.

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTION

As this is to be the student's first flight training exercise, ensure

that everything is explained painstakingly. Emphasise this as

necessary, since all future flight training exercises are based

around the basic principles learned in this exercise.

This exercise should be tailored to the student's previous flying

experience if applicable. It is important that the student has an

enjoyable and pleasant experience. The instructor must set the

highest standard of airmanship and procedures throughout.

Students will often get very tense in the earlier air exercises.

The instructor should make every effort to ensure that the

student is comfortable and relaxed as much as possible. Stress

the need for correct, comfortable posture in these early stages.

Introducing short in-flight relaxation exercises from time to time

to prevent the student from tensing muscles may be helpful

during earlier flights.

Ensure that the helicopter is reasonably stable before handing

over control to the student.

Emphasise the use of verbal confirmation before commencing

any turns.

The use of a model helicopter will make preparatory instruction

much more effective.

LESSON CHECKLIST

Exercise 3: Air experience:

(A) to introduce the student to rotary wing flight;

(B) flight exercise.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 73

EFFECTS OF CONTROLS

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Theory of flight:

Describe the visual and instrument indications resulting

• definitions

from various cyclic control movements.

Explain that the cyclic a sensitive control and that the

• helicopter controls

disc responds rapidly to the rate of movement of the

Function of flight and engine instruments

cyclic so smooth controlled movements should be

Function of ancillary controls

made. Also emphasise to the student that the cyclic is

not self centering and will need continual adjustments

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

to maintain attitude.

• Collective pitch control

Aim

Moving the collective causes an equal change of pitch

For the student to learn:

to all main rotor blades. The primary effect of moving

• the primary and secondary effects of flight controls in

the collective alone, in cruising flight, is a change in

flight

height.

•

the effects of:

Explain that there are secondary effects comprising

(a) air speed;

changes of attitude, heading and RPM. For this reason,

(b) power changes (torque);

the collective is seldom moved without coordinating

movements of the cyclic, pedals and throttle. This

(d) disc loading (bank and flare);

aspect will be covered in the following exercise.

(e) controls of selecting hydraulics on/off;

• Throttle

(f) control friction.

Move the twist grip to open and close the throttle.

(g) instruments;

(h) use of carburettor heat or anti-icing control.

Explain the function of the throttle as appropriate to the

type. The primary effect is RPM control (engine and

• the use of ancillary controls.

rotor RPM). Explain that there are secondary effects

comprising YAW and MAP changes.

Review

• Tail rotor pedals

Exercise 2: Preparation for Flight

Movement of the pedals causes a change in pitch of the

Exercise 3: Air Experience

tail rotor blades. The result of this is a yaw. Stress that,

Motivation

in the cruise, this yaw is a large skidding motion. Explain

that there are secondary effects comprising roll, RPM

This exercise introduces the helicopter controls and their

changes and IAS errors. The pedals should not be used

functions with the associated indications and use of the

to change the helicopter’s direction of flight.

instruments.

• Ancillary controls

Airmanship / TEM

Describe the use of the ancillary controls (e.g.

• Lookout

carburettor heat, mixture, trim, rotor brake, anti-ice,

• Handing Over/Taking Over

windscreen, de-fogging, heater, etc.) as appropriate to

type.

• Aircraft Limitations

Common

Teaching Points

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

• Cyclic pitch control

Moving the cyclic causes the rotor disc to tilt. As a result

•

Particular care must be taken when demonstrating the

of this, the helicopter will either pitch or roll, or a

effect of the throttle and collective pitch lever to avoid

combination of the two, depending on the direction in

confusing the student in the air. A thorough explanation is

necessary before flight.

which the cyclic is moved. Explain that there are

secondary effects comprising changes in altitude,

Emphasis must be made on using the horizon and attitude,

•

airspeed and RPM.

not on the instruments

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 74

AIR EXERCISE

• Tail Rotor Pedals

Re-establish a straight and level cruise.

Before take-off:

Demonstrate the effects of right and left pedal movement,

•

make sure the student is seated comfortably and ensure

pointing out the visual and flight instrument indications.

all checks are completed by using a check list

Student practice

•

demonstrate the correct use of frictions, trims and control

• Ancillary Controls

adjustments, as appropriate to type

As appropriate to type:

•

demonstrate the effect of cyclic control movements on

Demonstrate the use of ancillary controls.

the rotor disc, including how the horizon is used as a

reference to interpret the helicopter’s attitude

Student practice

• demonstrate the effect of collective lever on the pitch of

•

All Controls

both blades when raising and lowering the control

Have the student practise simple flight manoeuvres by

•

demonstrate opening and closing the throttle

application of the basic principles of this exercise. Stress the

•

demonstrate the effect of pedals on the pitch of the tail

need for smooth operation. Rather than demand accuracy at

rotor

this stage, monitor the controls to avoid excessive control

movements by following through as necessary.

In Flight:

• Cyclic Control

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Establish a straight and level cruise at a safe altitude.

As this is to be the student’s first flight training exercise, spare

Demonstrate pitching movement in the normal range.

no pains to explain everything carefully. Emphasis is necessary,

Point out the sensitivity or lag, as appropriate to type.

since all future flight training exercises are based around the

basic principles learned in this exercise.

Student practice

This exercise should be tailored to the student’s previous flying

When the student demonstrates reasonable

experience if applicable.

competency, point out the flight instrument indications.

Students will often get very tense in the earlier air exercises.

Re-establish a straight and level cruise.

The instructor should make every effort to ensure that the

student is comfortable and relaxed as much as possible.

Demonstrate rolling movement (gentle and medium turns)

Ensure that the helicopter is reasonably stable before handing

Student practice

over control to the student.

Point out flight instrument indications

Emphasise the use of verbal confirmation before commencing

Re-establish a straight and level cruise.

any turns.

Demonstrate a combination of pitching and rolling

The use of a model helicopter will make preparatory instruction

much more effective.

movements.

Stress the need for correct, comfortable posture in these early

Student practice

stages.

Point out flight instrument indications.

• Collective Control

LESSON CHECKLIST

Re-establish a straight and level cruise.

Exercise 4: Effects of controls:

Demonstrate the effects of raising and lowering the

(A) function of flight controls, primary and secondary

collective, pointing out the visual and flight instrument

effect;

indications.

(B) effects of:

Student practice.

(a) air speed;

• Throttle

(b) power changes (torque);

Where appropriate to type, re-establish a straight and level

cruise.

(d) disc loading (bank and flare);

(e) controls of selecting hydraulics on/off;

Demonstrate the effects of opening and closing the

(f) control friction.

throttle, pointing out the visual and flight instrument

(g) instruments;

indications.

(D) use of carburettor heat or anti-icing control.

Student practice

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 75

POWER AND ATTITUDE CHANGES

Speed Decrease

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Explain to decrease the speed the disc is tilted back with

Flight guide: engine, transmission and airspeed limitations

the cyclic, the nose rises to a more nose up attitude and

Flapback

the aircraft slows down. As the speed decreases, the disc

Power required diagram

'flaps' forward and the cyclic must be moved further back

to maintain the deceleration. When the speed is close to

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

the desired speed the nose attitude is reselected to the

attitude for the required speed.

Aim

Is for the student to learn how to maintain a specified

Power changes

airspeed, how to change that airspeed by changing the

Explain how the height of the aircraft is controlled by

fuselage attitude and the relationship of the cyclic position

collective lever. When the lever is raised the power

to the airspeed and how to make power changes.

increases because of the correlater linkage and the

aircraft nose will yaw. The reverse is true when the lever

Review

is lowered and consequently to maintain the heading the

Exercise 4: Effects of Controls

use of pedal is required when changing power. Increases

Motivation

and decreases in collective pitch will result in attitude

changes which should be anticipated.

This exercise will enable the student to maintain and change

the aircraft airspeed.

AIR EXERCISE

Airmanship / TEM

Demonstrate airspeed changes.

• Positive hand over of controls

Student practice

•

Lookout

Demonstrate power changes.

•

W/V

Student practice

Monitor /scan of engine temperatures and pressures

•

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Helicopter limitations

•

If the student is able to cope, this exercise can be combined

Teaching Points

with Exercise 6.

Describe how to conduct attitude and power changes as follows:

Students will often tend to pay excessive attention to the flight

Speed Increase

instruments in this exercise. Care must be taken to ensure that

a proper scan between the instruments and external

Explain that to increase the speed from balanced cruise

references is established and that a good lookout is maintained.

flight it is necessary to tilt the rotor disc further forward

with the cyclic which will result in the nose dropping to

It should be explained that it takes a certain time for speed

a new attitude. As the aircraft accelerates the rotor disc

changes to occur and attempts to hurry the process can lead to

will tend to 'flapback' so to maintain the acceleration it

over controlling. Therefore the student should be encouraged

is necessary to move the cyclic progressively forward and

to SELECT, HOLD and ADJUST. It is recommended that initially

reselect the attitude for the required speed. In light

speed changes only between 40-80kts is practised.

helicopters with an effective horizontal stabiliser the

increase in down wash force tends to maintain the

Common

fuselage attitude relatively constant over a large part of

Errors

COMMON ERRORS

the speed range.

• Over controlling on the cyclic, usually caused by failure to

appreciate the lag in control response.

• Failure to maintain selected attitude.

• Incorrect Throttle movement.

Failure to appreciate and correct for yaw.

•

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 76

STRAIGHT AND LEVEL

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Flight guide: engine, transmission and airspeed limitations

Make appropriate movement to the collective lever to

correct climb or descent back to level flight at the same time

Flapback

preventing/correcting yaw with pedals.

Power required diagram

Adjust attitude, power and yaw pedals as required to settle

accurately in level flight at the nominated airspeed ensuring

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

balance ball and/or string is in the middle. Note that attitude

Aim

of the aircraft is not significantly different between 40-

The aim is for the student to learn how to utilise speed control

and power changes to achieve level balance flight at specified

AIR EXERCISE

airspeeds. (Note: straight and level flight means at constant

altitude and heading)

Demonstrate straight and level balance flight at cruise power

Student practice

Review

Exercise 4: Effects of Controls

Demonstrate airspeed changes whilst maintaining altitude

Exercise 5: Power and Attitude Changes

Student practice

Motivation

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

This exercise will utilise speed control and power changing

techniques learned in last exercise to achieve a level balanced

If the student is able to cope, this exercise can be combined

flight at specified airspeeds.

with Exercise 5.

Students will often tend to pay excessive attention to the flight

Airmanship / TEM

instruments in this exercise. Care must be taken to ensure that

• Positive hand over of controls

a proper scan between the instruments and external

•

Lookout

references is established and that a good lookout is maintained.

•

W/V

It should be explained that it takes a certain time for speed

Monitor /scan of engine temperatures and pressures

changes to occur and attempts to hurry the process can lead to

•

over controlling. Therefore the student should be encouraged

Helicopter limitations

•

to SELECT, HOLD and ADJUST. It is recommended that

Teaching Points

initially speed changes only between 40-80kts are practised.

Where appropriate to the aircraft type, demonstrate the

Describe how to maintain straight and level flight as follows:

methods of changing manifold pressure at constant rotor RPM

Explain that the basic rules to remember from previous

and changing rotor RPM at constant manifold pressure.

exercises are that the collective lever controls height and

the cyclic controls the attitude therefore the airspeed.

Describe the power and airspeed settings used for straight

and level cruise flight as appropriate to type.

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Describe how to maintain airspeed at a constant altitude

Errors

and airspeed by the use of visual and instrument cues, such

as the relationship between the disc and the horizon, cross

•

Failure to hold attitude long enough to allow the speed to

checking with the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI etc.

stabilise resulting in over controlling on the cyclic.

Describe how to conduct speed changes between 40-80kt in

•

Poor rotor RPM control usually caused by the lack of

level balanced flight as follows:

anticipation of the effect of changing airspeed.

Select the attitude to accelerate or decelerate, using trim or

•

Failure to correct yaw during power changes.

control friction if appropriate, to the desired speed and

•

When flying straight and level controlling height with

check with the altimeter and VSI to see whether climbing or

cyclic and speed with power.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 78

CLIMBING

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

Flight guide, Power Limitations & Performance Data

Once the aircraft is assessed to be established in the climb

the student should then check the airspeed, VSI, Altimeter,

Optimum Climb Speed, Best Rate of Climb, Best Angle of

Compass, Power and make the necessary adjustments to the

Climb

appropriate control .

Power Required Diagram

Explain that before reaching the required altitude that it is

necessary to anticipate the 'level off' and the same mnemonic

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

can be applied:

Aim

For the student to learn how to climb at given speeds, reommended

ATTITUDE:

Move the cyclic forward to adopt the

helicopter in a straight and level attitude

airspeed and power settings.

Lower collective to required power to maintain

Review

POWER:

straight and level flight

Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes.

Exercise 6: Straight and Level Flight.

TRIM:

Apply the necessary pedal to maintain balance

flight

Motivation

When learning to fly helicopters being able to climb with

Describe how the level off is performed visually using the

precision is an integral part of the basic handling of the aircraft.

helicopter attitude and the horizon. Once the aircraft is

assessed to be established in straight and level flight the

Airmanship / TEM

student should then check the airspeed, VSI, Altimeter,

•

Lookout

compass, power and make the necessary adjustments to the

appropriate control .

•

Helicopter limitations

•

Control Handover

AIR EXERCISE

Teaching points

Demonstrate descending and level off at various speeds and

Explain using the Power Required Diagram and the POH: the

power settings.

different speeds for optimum climb best rate of climb and best

angle of climb, that are achievable when altering power and

Student practice

airspeed. Give examples when and why the different

techniques may be used.

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Explain the importance of initially adopting straight and level

Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the

attitude, before commencing a climb and performing a lookout,

manoeuvre, especially above the aircraft,

LOOK OUT

including above the aircraft altitude, emphasising the difficulty

and CHECK IN!

in seeing aircraft.

Describe how cyclic is used for airspeed corrections, collective

A mnemonic commonly used for climbing is APT:

for altitude corrections and pedals used to maintain balanced

flight and although the cyclic is used to initiate the climb after

ATTITUDE: Move the cyclic aft to adopt the helicopter

practice the procedure should be a co-ordination exercise

climb attitude for the desired climbing

among all three controls.

POWER:

Raise collective to recommended climb power

It may be possible to combine Exercises 7, 8 & 9 to make

efficient use of time and airspace

TRIM:

Apply the necessary pedal to maintain balanced

flight

Describe how the climb attitude is performed visually using the

Common

COMMON ERRORS

helicopter attitude and the horizon.

Errors

On levelling out from the climb, reducing power before

•

speed increases.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 80

DESCENDING

Describe how the descent attitude is performed visually using

the helicopter attitude and the horizon. Once the aircraft is

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

assessed to be established in the descent the student should

then check the airspeed, VSI, Altimeter, Compass, Power and

Flight guide, Power Limitations & Performance Data

make the necessary adjustments to the appropriate control.

Optimum Descent Speed, Best Rate of Descent, Best

Explain that before reaching the required altitude that it is

Angle of Descent, Carburettor Icing

necessary to anticipate the 'level off' and the same mnemonic

Power Required Diagram

can be applied:

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

POWER:

Raise the collective to the required power

Aim

setting for the desired level flight speed

For the student to learn how to descend at given speeds

ATTITUDE:Move the cyclic forward to prevent nose up

pitch, and select the helicopter attitude for the

Review

desired level flight speed

Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes.

Apply the necessary pedal to maintain

TRIM:

Exercise 6: Straight and Level Flight.

balanced flight

Motivation

Describe how the level off is performed visually using the

When learning to fly helicopters being able to descend with

helicopter attitude and the horizon. Once the aircraft is

precision is an integral part of the basic handling of the aircraft.

assessed to be established in straight and level flight the

Airmanship / TEM

student should then check the airspeed, VSI, Altimeter,

compass, power and make the necessary adjustments to the

•

Lookout

appropriate control.

•

Carburettor Heat, if applicable

• Helicopter limitations

AIR EXERCISE

•

Control Handover

Demonstrate descending and level off at various speeds and

Teaching points

power settings.

Explain using the Power Required Diagram and the POH, the

Student practice

optimum descent speed, best rate of descent speed, best

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

angle of descent, and the different rates of descent (ROD)

achievable when altering power and airspeed, giving examples

Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the

when and why the different techniques may be used.

manoeuvre, especially below the aircraft,

LOOK OUT;

Explain the importance of initially adopting a straight and level

ATTITUDE; INSTRUMENTS

attitude, before commencing a descent and performing a

Describe how cyclic is used for airspeed corrections, collective

lookout, including below the aircraft altitude, emphasising the

for altitude corrections and pedals used to maintain balanced

difficulty in seeing aircraft below the horizon.

flight and although the cyclic is used to initiate the descent after

If the helicopter requires the application of carburettor heating

practice the procedure should be a co-ordination exercise

emphasise the dangers of carburettor icing when reducing

among all three controls.

power to descend.

If the helicopter is equipped with a carburettor - explain the

A mnemonic commonly used for descending is PAT:

formation and dangers of carburettor icing, and explain the

carburettor heating system and its operation.

POWER:

Lower the collective to the required power

It may be possible to combine Exercises 7, 8 & 9 to make

setting for the descent

efficient use of time and airspace

ATTITUDE:

Move the cyclic aft to prevent nose down

pitch, and select the helicopter attitude for the

desired descent speed

Common

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

Apply the necessary pedal to maintain

TRIM:

balanced flight

• Failure to maintain attitude caused by chasing the aircraft

instruments.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 82

TURNING

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

POH Optimum Angle of Bank, for Rate 1 & Medium Turns

Climbing and Descending Turns

Describe how to perform turning in the climb and in the

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

descent as follows:

Aim

Perform a lookout, including above, and then initiate a

climb. Once the climb has been established use lateral

For the student to learn how to turn the helicopter on a new

cyclic to turn, noting the reduced rate of climb during the

heading in level flight and whilst climbing and descending.

turn and control/correct with collective application. Note

Review

that returning to level attitude during the climb will

restore the original rate of climb.

Exercise 6: Straight and Level Flight

Perform a Lookout, including below, and then initiate a

Exercise 7: Climbing

descent. Once the descent has been established use

Exercise 8: Descending

lateral cyclic to turn. Note the increased rate of descent

Motivation

during the turn and control with collective application.

Note that returning to level attitude during the descent

When learning to fly helicopters it is necessary to be able to alter

will restore the original rate of descent.

the direction of the helicopter in a controlled and accurate

manner.

AIR EXERCISE

Airmanship / TEM

Demonstrate medium level turns left and right on to

•

Lookout

nominated headings using the gyro heading indicator and

• Helicopter limitations

compass.

•

Control Handover

Student practice

Teaching points

Demonstrate medium climbing and descending turns left

and right on to nominated headings using the gyro heading

Level Medium Turns

indicator and compass.

Explain that before any turn is attempted it is necessary to

Student practice

perform an effective lookout, especially in the direction of

Demonstrate medium level turns left and right on to

turn.

nominated headings using the gyro heading indicator and

Describe how lateral cyclic is used to roll to the desired angle

compass.

of bank, noting that the cyclic is affected by rate of

Student practice

displacement so should be a smooth controlled movement.

The bank angle should be selected by reference to the

horizon.

Explain once in the turn the ASI, VSI, Altimeter, Power,

balance all should be checked and the student should return

to looking outside and referencing the horizon and bank

angle. Describe how cyclic is used for airspeed corrections,

collective for altitude corrections and pedals used to maintain

balanced flight and how it will be necessary to repeat the

check during the turn.

Explain that the student should anticipate when the new

desired direction is reached and begin to roll level before the

Common

direction is obtained. To roll level use lateral cyclic to place

COMMON ERRORS

Errors

the helicopter in a level attitude. Once level, the instruments

should be checked for precision and necessary adjustments

made for straight and level flight.

•

When turning, using the pedals to assist in the turn, causing

out of trim flight.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 84

TIPS FOR INSTRUCTORS

Emphasise the need for lookout, before and during the

manoeuvre, especially in the direction of turn and above and

below when descending and climbing.

It should be noted that in a helicopter with side-by-side seat

configuration, there may be an offset seating visual error. This is

due to the fact that the helicopter is turning through the

longitudinal axis, from which the student position is offset. This

can lead to incorrect fore and aft attitude selection and should

be corrected in the turn. It is important that turns be practised in

both directions to show the different visual references in the

helicopter.

It is usual for the student to spend too much time looking in at

the instruments during the turn/climb/descent and over control

the helicopter, especially with instruments that lag. An

effective scan and lookout should be used to climb/descend

accurately. Because of the need for safety and accuracy the

student should be taught how to LOOK OUT and CHECK IN!

Students also have a tendency to assist the turn using the

pedals, (especially fixed wing pilots). This needs to be

monitored and corrected if it occurs.

Once the student is comfortable with the basic handling during

a turn the instructor can introduce turning on to headings using

the Compass and demonstrate the changes of compass when

rolling level on to a Magnetic Heading of North and South. The

student can also learn how to turn on to heading using the

Directional Gyro, and emphasise the need to check the

Directional Gyro before turning, and Gyroscopic Errors.

However the Directional Gyro removes the Compass turning

errors.

Note that any errors should be correctly identified before any

corrections made (e.g. it is possible for the student to note a

rate of climb and adjust the collective, when the rate of climb

was caused by the helicopter attitude. Therefore requiring a

cyclic correction).

Explain that the student should anticipate when the new

desired direction is reached and begin to roll level before the

direction is obtained. To roll level use lateral cyclic to place the

helicopter in a level attitude. Once level, the instruments should

be checked for precision and if necessary adjustments made

for straight and level flight.

LESSON CHECKLIST

It may be possible to combine Exercises 7, 8 & 9 to make

efficient use of time and airspace

Exercise 9: Turning:

(A) initiation and maintaining medium level turns;

(B) resuming straight flight;

(D) climbing and descending turns and effect on rate

of climb or descent;

(E) turns onto selected headings, use of gyro heading

indicator and compass;

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 85

BASIC AUTOROTATION

GROUND SCHOOL POINTS

• H. V. Diagram

Teaching Points

• Flight Manual

Explain that the helicopter is fully manoeuvrable in autorotation.

•

Aerodynamics of Autorotations

State the manufacturer’s Indicated Airspeed and RPM for

minimum rate of descent in autorotation.

PREPARATORY INSTRUCTION

Describe the entry, as follows:

Aim

For the student to learn autorotation

At a safe altitude, straight and level cruise, into wind, over a

suitable area, complete airmanship checks.

(A)

safety checks, verbal warning and look-out;

Lower collective.

(B)

entry, development and characteristics;

Use throttle to prevent overspeed, as appropriate to type.

(C)

control of air speed and RRPM, rotor and engine

When collective is fully down, split needles and select

limitations;

recommended engine RPM.

effect of AUM, IAS, disc loading, G forces and density

(D)

Prevent yaw.

altitude;

re-engagement and go-around procedures (throttle

Explain that:

over-ride or ERPM control);

Heading and airspeed are controlled with cyclic, as in

danger of vortex condition during recovery;

(F)

powered flight.

gentle and medium turns in autorotation techniques;

(G)

Changes in speed will cause the RRPM to increase and

demonstration of variable flare simulated engine off

decrease.

(H)

landing.

RPM is controlled by collective.

Review

Point out that turns in autorotation increase the rate of descent

Climbs, descents and turns

and RPM.

Motivation

In powered flight the rotor drag is overcome by engine power

Common

but when the engine fails or is deliberately disengaged some

Errors

COMMON ERRORS

other means is required to maintain the RPM. This is achieved

by allowing the helicopter to descend and lowering the

• Allowing the nose to drop during entry.

collective lever so that the resultant airflow provides the driving

force to turn the blades.

•

Allowing aircraft to yaw during entry and re engagement.

Airmanship / TEM

•

Over controlling on cyclic on entry.

Pre-entry checks, to include:

•

Closing throttle before collective lever is fully down.

•

Over speeding the engine by not closing the throttle as

Pre-landing check.

collective lever is lowered.

Lookout, particularly below in the descent and above in the

Harsh re-engagement with a tendency to over pitch on go-

•

go-around.

around with low RPM.

Select suitable precautionary landing area.

•

Rapid throttle engagement and raising collective lever on

Verbal warning.

go-around causing Overspeed.

Post-entry checks as appropriate to type.

•

Ensuring safe airspeed, before initiating go-around, to

Aircraft performance limitations, specifically RPM.

prevent Vortex Ring state.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE >> PAGE 86

HELICOPTER FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR GUIDE (2018) - page 1