Helicopter Flying Handbook (2019)

9-4

Inertia

HCL

Figure 9-2.

During a level, coordinated turn, the rate of turn

is commensurate with the angle of bank used, and inertia and
horizontal component of lift (HCL) are equal.

Skid

Inertia

HCL

Slip

Inertia

HCL

Figure 9-3.

During a slip, the rate of turn is too low for the angle

of bank used, and the horizontal component of lift (HCL) exceeds
inertia.

Figure 9-4.

During a skid, the rate of turn is too great for the

angle of bank used, and inertia exceeds the horizontal component
of lift (HCL).

How fast the helicopter banks depends on how much lateral
cyclic pressure is applied. How far the helicop ter banks (the
steepness of the bank) depends on how long the cyclic is
displaced. After establishing the proper bank angle, return
the cyclic toward the neutral position. When the bank is
established, returning the cyclic to neutral (or holding it
inclined relative to the horizon) will maintain the helicopter
at that bank angle. Increase the collective and throttle to
maintain altitude and rpm. As the torque increases, increase
the proper antitorque pedal pressure to maintain longi tudinal
trim. Depending on the degree of bank, addi tional forward
cyclic pressure may be required to maintain airspeed.

Rolling out of the turn to straight-and-level flight is the same
as the entry into the turn, except that pressure on the cyclic
is applied in the opposite direction. Since the helicopter
continues to turn as long as there is any bank, start the rollout
before reaching the desired heading.

The discussion on level turns is equally applicable to making
turns while climbing or descending. The only difference is
that the helicopter is in a climbing or descending attitude
rather than that of level flight. If a so-called simultaneous
entry (entering a turn while, at the same time, climbing or
descending) is desired, merely combine the techniques of
both maneuvers—climb or descent entry and turn entry.
When recovering from a climbing or descending turn, the
desired heading and altitude are rarely reached at the same
time. If the heading is reached first, stop the turn and maintain
the climb or descent until reaching the desired altitude. On the
other hand, if the altitude is reached first, establish the level
flight attitude and continue the turn to the desired heading.

Slips

A slip occurs when the helicopter slides sideways toward the
center of the turn.

[Figure 9-3]

It is caused by an insufficient

amount of antitorque pedal in the direction of the turn,

or too much in the direction oppo site the turn, in relation
to the amount of power used. In other words, if you hold
improper antitorque pedal pres sure, which keeps the nose
from following the turn, the helicopter slips sideways toward
the center of the turn.

Skids

A skid occurs when the helicopter slides sideways away from
the center of the turn.

[Figure 9-4]

It is caused by too much

antitorque pedal pressure in the direction of the turn, or by
too little in the direction opposite the turn in relation to the
amount of power used. If the helicopter is forced to turn faster
with increased pedal pressure instead of by increasing the
degree of the bank, it skids sideways away from the center
of the turn instead of flying in its normal curved path.

In summary, a skid occurs when the rate of turn is too great
for the amount of bank being used, and a slip occurs when
the rate of turn is too low for the amount of bank being used.

[Figure 9-5]

9-5

30.0

29.9

29.8

I00

FEET

CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

OFF

NAV

NET

AVG

PULL

PUSH

DIST

ALT

PUS

-2

-4

Acceleration

G UNITS

N 30 60 E 120 150

STEER

FOR

S 210 240 W 300 330

STEER

RADIO

FOR

160

140

120

100

knots

winter

−

PWR

FNCN

SEL

VOL

BATT

KNOTS

PUSH

30.0

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CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

OFF

NAV

NET

AVG

PULL

PUSH

DIST

ALT

PUSH

-2

-4

Acceleration

G UNITS

N 30 60 E 120 150

STEER

FOR

S 210 240 W 300 330

STEER

RADIO

FOR

160

140

120

100

knots

winter

−

PWR

FNCN

SEL

VOL

BATT

KNOTS

PUSH

30.0

29.9

29.8

I00

FEET

CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

OFF

NAV

NET

AVG

PULL

PUSH

DIST

ALT

PUSH

-2

-4

Acceleration

G UNITS

N 30 60 E 120 150

STEER

FOR

S 210 240 W 300 330

STEER

RADIO

FOR

160

140

120

100

knots

winter

100

−

PWR

FNCN

SEL

VOL

BATT

KNOTS

PUSH

Slip

Skid

Coordinated

Yaw string

Figure 9-5.

Cockpit view of a slip and skid.

Normal Climb

The entry into a climb from a hover has already been described
in the Normal Takeoff from a Hover subsection; there fore,
this discussion is limited to a climb entry from cruising flight.

Technique

To enter a climb in a helicopter while maintaining airspeed,
the first actions are increasing the collective and throttle,
and adjusting the pedals as necessary to maintain a centered
ball in the slip/skid indicator. Moving the collective up
requires a slight aft movement of the cyclic to direct all
of the increased power into lift and maintain the airspeed.
Remember, a helicopter can climb with the nose down and
descend with the nose up. Helicopter attitude changes mainly
reflect acceleration or deceleration, not climb or descent.
Therefore, the climb attitude is approximately the same as
level flight in a stable climb, depending on the aircraft’s
horizontal stabilizer design.

If the pilot wishes to climb faster, with a decreased airspeed,
then the climb can be initiated with aft cyclic. Depending
on initial or entry airspeed for the climb, the climb can be
accomplished without increasing the collective, if a much
slower airspeed is acceptable. However, as the airspeed
decreases, the airflow over the vertical fin decreases
necessitating more antitorque (left) pedal application.

To level off from a climb, start adjusting the attitude to the
level flight attitude a few feet prior to reaching the desired
altitude. The amount of lead depends on the rate of climb at
the time of level-off (the higher the rate of climb, the more
the lead). Generally, the lead is 10 percent of the climb rate.
For example, if the climb rate is 500 feet per minute (fpm),
you should lead the level-off by 50 feet.

To begin the level-off, apply forward cyclic to adjust and
maintain a level flight attitude, which can be slightly nose
low. Maintain climb power until the airspeed approaches the
desired cruising airspeed, then lower the collective to obtain
cruising power and adjust the throttle to obtain and maintain
cruising rpm. Throughout the level-off, maintain longitudinal
trim with the antitorque pedals.

Common Errors

1.  Failure to maintain proper power and airspeed.
2.  Holding too much or too little antitorque pedal.
3.  In the level-off, decreasing power before adjusting the

nose to cruising attitude.

Normal Descent

A normal descent is a maneuver in which the helicop ter loses
altitude at a controlled rate in a controlled attitude.

Technique

To establish a normal descent from straight-and-level flight
at cruising airspeed, lower the collective to obtain proper
power, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and increase
right antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading in a
counterclockwise rotor system (or left pedal pressure in a
clockwise system). If cruising airspeed is the same as or
slightly above descending air speed, simultaneously apply
the necessary cyclic pressure to obtain the approximate
descending attitude. If the pilot wants to decelerate, the
cyclic must be moved aft. If the pilot desires to descend with
increased airspeed, then forward cyclic is all that is required if
airspeed remains under the limit. As the helicopter stabilizes
at any forward airspeed, the fuselage attitude will streamline
due to the airflow over the horizontal stabilizer. As the
airspeed changes, the airflow over the vertical stabilizer or
fin changes, so the pedals must be adjusted for trim.

9-6

The pilot should always remember that the total lift and thrust
vectoring is controlled by the cyclic. If a certain airspeed
is desired, it will require a certain amount of cyclic and
collective movement for level flight. If the cyclic is moved,
the thrust-versus-lift ratio is changed. Aft cyclic directs
more power to lift, and altitude increases. Forward cyclic
directs more power to thrust, and airspeed increases. If the
collective is not changed and there is a change only in cyclic,
the total thrust to lift ratio does not change: aft cyclic results
in a climb, and forward cyclic results in a descent with the
corresponding airspeed changes.

To level off from the descent, lead the desired altitude
by approximately 10 percent of the rate of descent. For
example, a 500-fpm rate of descent would require a 50-foot
lead. At this point, increase the collective to obtain cruising
power, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and increase left
antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading (right pedal
pressure in a clockwise rotor system). Adjust the cyclic to
obtain cruising airspeed and a level flight atti tude as the
desired altitude is reached.

Common Errors

1. Failure to maintain constant angle of decent dur ing

training.

2. Failure to level-off the aircraft sufficiently, which

results in recovery below the desired altitude.

3. Failure to adjust antitorque pedal pressures for changes

in power.

Vertical Takeoff to a Hover

A vertical takeoff to a hover involves flying the helicopter
from the ground vertically to a skid height of two to three
feet, while maintaining a constant heading. Once the desired
skid height is achieved, the helicopter should remain nearly
motionless over a reference point at a constant altitude and
on a constant heading. The maneuver requires a high degree
of concentration and coordination.

Technique

The pilot on the controls needs to clear the area left, right,
and above to perform a vertical takeoff to a hover. The
pilot should remain focused outside the aircraft and obtain
clearance to take off from the controlling tower. If necessary,
the pilot who is not on the controls assists in clearing the
aircraft and provides adequate warning of any obstacles and
any unannounced or unusual drift/altitude changes.

Heading control, direction of turn, and rate of turn at hover
are all controlled by using the pedals. Hover height, rate of
ascent, and the rate of descent are controlled by using the

collective. Helicopter position and the direction of travel are
controlled by the cyclic.

After receiving the proper clearance and ensuring that the
area is clear of obstacles and traffic, begin the maneuver with
the collective in the down position and the cyclic in a neutral
position, or slightly into the wind. Very slowly increase the
collective until the helicopter becomes light on the skids or
wheels. As collective and torque increases, antitorque must
be adjusted as well. Therefore, as the aircraft begins to get
light on the landing gear, apply appropriate antitorque pedal
to maintain aircraft heading. Continue to apply pedals as
necessary to maintain heading and coordinate the cyclic for
a vertical ascent. As the helicopter slowly leaves the ground,
check for proper attitude control response and helicopter
center of gravity. A slow ascent will allow stopping if
responses are outside the normal parameters indicating hung
or entangled landing gear, center of gravity problems, or
control issues. If a roll or tilt begin, decrease the collective
and determine the cause of the roll or tilt. Upon reaching the
desired hover altitude, adjust the flight controls as necessary
to maintain position over the intended hover area. Student
pilots should be reminded that while at a hover, the helicopter
is rarely ever level. Helicopters usually hover left side low
due to the tail rotor thrust being counteracted by the main
rotor tilt. A nose low or high condition is generally caused
by loading. Once stabilized, check the engine instruments
and note the power required to hover.

Excessive movement of any flight control requires a change
in the other flight controls. For example, if the helicopter
drifts to one side while hovering, the pilot naturally moves
the cyclic in the opposite direction. When this is done,
part of the vertical thrust is diverted, resulting in a loss of
altitude. To maintain altitude, increase the collective. This
increases drag on the blades and tends to slow them down. To
counteract the drag and maintain rpm, increase the throttle.
Increased throttle means increased torque, so the pilot must
add more pedal pressure to maintain the heading. This can
easily lead to overcontrolling the helicopter. However, as
level of proficiency increases, prob lems associated with
overcontrolling decrease. Helicopter controls are usually
more driven by pressure than by gross control movements.

Common Errors

1. Failing to ascend vertically as the helicopter becomes

airborne.

2. Pulling excessive collective to become airborne,

causing the helicopter to gain too much altitude.

3. Overcontrolling the antitorque pedals, which not only

changes the heading of the helicopter, but also changes
the rpm.

9-7

4. Reducing throttle rapidly in situations in which

proper rpm has been exceeded, usually resulting in
exaggerated heading changes and loss of lift, resulting
in loss of altitude.

5. Failing to ascend slowly.

Hovering

A stationary hover is a maneuver in which the helicopter is
main tained in nearly motionless flight over a reference point
at a constant altitude and on a constant heading.

Technique

To maintain a hover over a point, use sideview and peripheral
vision to look for small changes in the helicopter’s attitude
and altitude. When these changes are noted, make the
necessary con trol inputs before the helicopter starts to
move from the point. To detect small variations in altitude
or position, the main area of visual attention needs to be
some distance from the aircraft, using various points on the
helicopter or the tip-path plane as a reference. Looking too
closely or looking down leads to overcontrolling. Obviously,
in order to remain over a certain point, know where the point
is, but do not focus all attention there.

As with a takeoff, the pilot controls altitude with the collec-
tive and maintains a constant rpm with the throttle. The cyclic
is used to maintain the helicopter’s position; the pedals, to
control heading. To maintain the helicopter in a stabilized
hover, make small, smooth, coordinated corrections. As the
desired effect occurs, remove the correction in order to stop the
helicopter’s movement. For example, if the helicopter begins
to move rearward, apply a small amount of forward cyclic
pressure. However, neutralize this pres sure just before the
helicopter comes to a stop, or it will begin to move forward.

After experience is gained, a pilot develops a certain “feel”
for the helicopter. Small deviations can be felt and seen,
so you can make the corrections before the helicopter
actually moves. A certain relaxed looseness develops, and
controlling the helicopter becomes sec ond nature, rather than
a mechanical response.

Common Errors

1. Tenseness and slow reactions to movements of the

helicopter.

2. Failure to allow for lag in cyclic and collective pitch,

which leads to overcontrolling. It is very common for
a student to get ahead of the helicopter. Due to inertia,
it requires some small time period for the helicopter
to respond.

3. Confusing attitude changes for altitude changes, which

results in improper use of the controls.

4. Hovering too high, creating a hazardous flight

condition. The height velocity chart should be
referenced to determine the maximum skid height
to hover and safely recover the helicopter should a
malfunction occur.

5. Hovering too low, resulting in occasional touch down.
6. Becoming overly confident over prepared surfaces

when taking off to a hover. Be aware that dynamic
rollover accidents usually occur over a level surface.

Hovering Turn

A hovering turn is a maneuver performed at hovering height
in which the nose of the helicopter is rotated either left or
right while maintaining position over a reference point on the
surface. Hovering turns can also be made around the mast or
tail of the aircraft. The maneuver requires the coordination
of all flight controls and demands pre cise control near the
surface. A pilot should maintain a constant altitude, rate of
turn, and rpm.

Technique

Initiate the turn in either direction by applying anti-torque
pedal pressure toward the desired direction. It should be noted
that during a turn to the left, more power is required because
left pedal pressure increases the pitch angle of the tail rotor,
which, in turn, requires additional power from the engine. A
turn to the right requires less power. (On helicopters with a
clock wise rotating main rotor, right pedal increases the pitch
angle and, therefore, requires more power.)

As the turn begins, use the cyclic as necessary (usually into
the wind) to keep the helicopter over the desired spot. To
continue the turn, add more pedal pressure as the helicopter
turns to the cross wind position. This is because the wind is
striking the tail surface and tail rotor area, making it more
difficult for the tail to turn into the wind. As pedal pressures
increase due to crosswind forces, increase the cyclic pressure
into the wind to maintain position. Use the collective with the
throttle to maintain a constant altitude and rpm.

[Figure 9-6]

After the 90° portion of the turn, decrease pedal pressure
slightly to maintain the same rate of turn. Approaching the
180°, or downwind portion, anticipate opposite pedal pressure
due to the tail moving from an upwind position to a down-
wind position. At this point, the rate of turn has a ten dency
to increase at a rapid rate due to the tendency of the tail
surfaces to weathervane. Because of the tailwind condition,

9-8

Pedal

Some left in hover, more

left to start turn to left

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Normally left pedal

application requires

more throttle

Pedal

Most left pressure in

turn

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Normally left pedal

application requires

more throttle

Pedal

Changing from left to

right pressure

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Normally left pedal

application requires

more throttle

Pedal

Most right pedal

pressure in turn

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Pedal

Some right to stop turn,

then left to maintain

heading

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Normally left pedal

application requires

more throttle

Cyclic—Forward

Cyclic—Right

Cyclic—Rearward

Cyclic—Left

Cyclic—Forward

WIND

Figure 9-6.

Left turns in helicopters with a counterclockwise rotating main rotor are more difficult to execute because the tail rotor

demands more power. This requires you to compensate with additional left pedal and increased throttle. Refer to this graphic throughout
the remainder of the discussion on a hovering turn to the left.

hold rearward cyclic pressure to keep the helicopter over
the same spot.

The horizontal stabilizer has a tendency to lift the tail during
a tailwind condition. This is the most difficult portion of
the hovering turn. Horizontal and vertical stabilizers have
several different designs and locations, including the canted
stabilizers used on some Hughes and Schweizer helicopters.
The primary purpose of the vertical stabilizer is to unload
the work of the antitorque system and to aid in trimming the
helicopter in flight should the antitorque system fail. The
horizontal stabilizer provides for a more usable CG range
and aids in trimming the helicopter longitudinally.

Because of the helicopter’s tendency to weathervane,
maintaining the same rate of turn from the 180° posi tion
actually requires some pedal pressure opposite the direction
of turn. If a pilot does not apply opposite pedal pressure,
the helicopter tends to turn at a faster rate. The amount of
pedal pressure and cyclic deflection throughout the turn
depends on the wind velocity. As the turn is finished on the
upwind heading, apply opposite pedal pressure to stop the
turn. Gradually apply forward cyclic pressure to keep the
helicopter from drifting.

Control pressures and direction of application change
continuously throughout the turn. The most dramatic change
is the pedal pressure (and corresponding power requirement)
necessary to control the rate of turn as the helicopter moves
through the downwind portion of the maneuver.

Turns can be made in either direction; however, in a high
wind condition, the tail rotor may not be able to produce
enough thrust, which means the pilot cannot control a turn
to the right in a counterclockwise rotor system. Therefore,
if control is ever question able, first attempt to make a 90°
turn to the left. If sufficient tail rotor thrust exists to turn
the helicopter crosswind in a left turn, a right turn can be
successfully controlled. The opposite applies to helicopters
with clockwise rotor systems. In this case, start the turn to
the right. Hovering turns should be avoided in winds strong
enough to preclude sufficient aft cyclic control to maintain
the helicopter on the selected surface reference point
when headed downwind. Check the flight manual for the
manufacturer’s recom mendations for this limitation.

9-9

A O M

CLUTCH

TEMP

CHIP

STARTER

CHIP

lOW

FUEL

LOW

RPM

FUEL

245

II5

I00

OBS

NAV

VERTICAL SPEED

100 FEET PER MINUTE

DOWN

2 MIN TURN

DC ELEC

30.0

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CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

20 20

I0 I0

20 20

TEST

STBY PWR

IN Hg

ALg.

MANFOLD

PRESS

20 30

100

0 10

MPH

KNOTS

120

110

100

110

100
90
80
70

110

100

90
80
70

E R

%RPM

Reference point

Figure 9-7.

To maintain a straight ground track, use two reference

points in line and at some distance in front of the helicopter.

Reference point

Figure 9-8.

The key to hovering sideward is establishing at least

two reference points that help maintain a straight track over the
ground while keeping a constant heading.

2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting

in excessive heading change.

3.  Failure to maintain desired hovering height.
4.  Failure to maintain proper rpm.
5.  Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.

Hovering—Sideward Flight

Sideward hovering flight may be necessary to move the
helicopter to a specific area when conditions make it
impossible to use forward flight. During the maneu ver,
a constant groundspeed, altitude, and heading should be
maintained.

Technique

Before starting sideward hovering flight, ensure the area
for the hover is clear, especially at the tail rotor. Constantly
monitor hover height and tail rotor clearance during all
hovering maneuvers to prevent dynamic rollover or tail
rotor strikes to the ground. Then, pick two points of in-line
reference in the direction of sideward hovering flight to help
maintain the proper ground track. These reference points
should be kept in line throughout the maneuver.

[Figure 9-8]

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by
applying cyclic toward the side in which the movement is
desired. As the movement begins, return the cyclic toward the
neutral position to maintain low groundspeed—no faster than
a brisk walk. Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant
groundspeed and ground track with cyclic. Maintain heading,

Common Errors

1.  Failing to maintain a slow, constant rate of turn.
2.  Failing to maintain position over the reference point.
3.  Failing to maintain rpm within normal range.
4.  Failing to maintain constant altitude.
5.   Failing to use the antitorque pedals properly.

Hovering—Forward Flight

Forward hovering flight is normally used to move a helicopter
to a specific location, and it may begin from a stationary
hover. During the maneuver, constant groundspeed, altitude,
and heading should be maintained.

Technique

Before starting, pick out two references directly in front and
in line with the helicopter. These reference points should be
kept in line throughout the maneuver.

[Figure 9-7]

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by
applying forward pressure on the cyclic. As movement
begins, return the cyclic toward the neutral position to
maintain low groundspeed—no faster than a brisk walk.
Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed
and path over the ground with the cyclic, a constant heading
with the antitorque pedals, altitude with the collective, and
the proper rpm with the throttle.

To stop the forward movement, apply rearward cyclic
pressure until the helicopter stops. As forward motion stops,
return the cyclic to the neutral position to pre vent rearward
movement. Forward movement can also be stopped by
simply applying rearward pressure to level the helicopter
and allowing it to drift to a stop.

Common Errors

1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting in

erratic movement over the surface.

9-10

Hover taxi (25 feet or less)

Poor surface conditions for skid type helicopters

Figure 9-9.

Hover taxi.

which in this maneuver is perpendicular to the ground track,
with the antitorque pedals, and a constant altitude with the
collective. Use the throttle to maintain the proper operating
rpm. Be aware that the nose tends to weathervane into the
wind. Changes in the pedal position will change the rpm
and must be corrected by collective and/or throttle changes
to maintain altitude.

To stop the sideward movement, apply cyclic pres sure in
the direction opposite to that of movement and hold it until
the helicopter stops. As motion stops, return the cyclic to
the neutral position to prevent movement in the opposite
direction. Applying sufficient opposite cyclic pressure to
level the helicopter may also stop sideward move ment. The
helicopter then drifts to a stop.

Common Errors

1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting in

overcontrolling and erratic movement over the surface.

2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting

in excessive heading change.

3.  Failure to maintain desired hovering height.
4.  Failure to maintain proper rpm.
5.  Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to starting

the maneuver.

Hovering—Rearward Flight

Rearward hovering flight may be necessary to move the
helicopter to a specific area when the situation is such that
forward or sideward hovering flight cannot be used. During
the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed, altitude, and
heading. Due to the limited visibility behind a helicopter, it
is important that the area behind the helicopter be cleared
before beginning the maneuver. Use of ground personnel is
rec ommended.

Technique

Before starting rearward hovering flight, pick out two
reference points in front of, and in line with the heli copter
just like hovering for ward.

[Figure 9-7]

The movement of

the helicopter should be such that these points remain in line.

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height
by applying rearward pressure on the cyclic. After the
movement has begun, position the cyclic to maintain a slow
groundspeed—no faster than a brisk walk. Throughout the
maneuver, maintain constant ground speed and ground track
with the cyclic, a constant heading with the antitorque pedals,
constant altitude with the collective, and the proper rpm with
the throttle.

To stop the rearward movement, apply forward cyclic and
hold it until the helicopter stops. As the motion stops, return
the cyclic to the neutral position. Also, as in the case of
forward and sideward hovering flight, opposite cyclic can
be used to level the helicopter and let it drift to a stop. Tail
rotor clearance must be maintained. Generally, a higher-than-
normal hover altitude is preferred.

Common Errors

1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic resulting in

overcontrolling and an uneven movement over the
surface.

2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting

in excessive heading change.

3.  Failure to maintain desired hovering height.
4.  Failure to maintain proper rpm.
5.   Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to starting

the maneuver.

Taxiing

Taxiing refers to operations on or near the surface of taxiways
or other prescribed routes. Helicopters utilize three different
types of taxiing.

Hover Taxi

A hover taxi is used when operating below 25 feet above
ground level (AGL).

[Figure 9-9]

Since hover taxi is just like

forward, sideward, or rearward hovering flight, the technique
to perform it is not presented here.

Air Taxi

An air taxi is preferred when movements require greater
distances within an airport or heliport bound ary.

[Figure 9-10]

In this case, fly to the new location; however, it is expected
that the helicopter will remain below 100 feet AGL with
an appropriate airspeed and will avoid over flight of other
aircraft, vehicles, and personnel.

9-11

Air taxi (100 feet or less)

Faster travel

Figure 9-10.

Air taxi.

Surface taxi

Less rotor downwash

Figure 9-11.

Surface taxi.

Technique

Before starting, determine the appropriate airspeed and
altitude combination to remain out of the cross-hatched or
shaded areas of the height/velocity diagram (see

Figure 7-1

Additionally, be aware of crosswind conditions that could
lead to loss of tail rotor effectiveness. Pick out two references
directly in front of the helicopter for the ground path desired.
These reference points should be kept in line throughout the
maneuver.

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by
applying forward pressure on the cyclic. As move ment
begins, attain the desired airspeed with the cyclic. Control the
desired altitude with the collective and rpm with the throttle.
Throughout the maneuver, maintain a desired groundspeed
and ground track with the cyclic, a constant heading with
antitorque pedals, the desired altitude with the collective,
and proper operating rpm with the throttle.

To stop the forward movement, apply aft cyclic pressure to
reduce forward speed. Simultaneously lower the col lective to
initiate a descent to hover altitude. As forward motion stops,
return the cyclic to the neutral posi tion to prevent rearward
movement. As approaching the proper hover altitude, increase
the collective as necessary to stop descent at hover altitude
(much like a quick stop maneuver (see page 10-4)).

Common Errors

1. Erratic movement of the cyclic, resulting in improper

airspeed control and erratic movement over the
surface.

2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, result ing

in excessive heading change.

3.  Failure to maintain desired altitude.
4.  Failure to maintain proper rpm.
5.  Overflying parked aircraft causing possible dam age

from rotor downwash.

6. Flying in the cross-hatched or shaded area of the

height/velocity diagram.

7. Flying in a crosswind that could lead to loss of tail

rotor effectiveness.

8.  Excessive tail-low attitudes.
9.  Excessive power used or required to stop.
10.  Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.

Surface Taxi

A surface taxi is used to minimize the effects of rotor
downwash in wheel-type helicopters.

[Figure 9-11]

Surface

taxiing in skid type helicopters is generally not recommended
due to the high risk of dynamic rollover; for more information,
refer to Chapter 11, Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards.

Technique

The helicopter should be in a stationary position on the surface
with the collective full down and the rpm the same as that
used for a hover. This rpm should be maintained throughout
the maneuver. Then, move the cyclic slightly forward and
apply gradual upward pres sure on the collective to move
the helicopter forward along the surface. Use the antitorque
pedals to maintain heading and the cyclic to maintain ground
track. The collective controls starting, stopping, and speed
while taxiing. The higher the collective pitch, the faster the
taxi speed; however, do not taxi faster than a brisk walk. If
the helicopter is equipped with brakes, use them to help slow
down. Do not use the cyclic to control groundspeed.

During a crosswind taxi, hold the cyclic into the wind a
sufficient amount to eliminate any drifting movement.

Common Errors

1. Improper use of cyclic.
2. Failure to use antitorque pedals for heading control.

9-12

Figure 9-12.

The helicopter takes several positions during a normal takeoff from hover.

3. Improper use of the controls during crosswind

operations.

4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.

Normal Takeoff from a Hover

A normal takeoff from a hover is an orderly transition to
forward flight and is executed to increase altitude safely and
expeditiously. Before initiating a takeoff, the pilot should
ensure that the proper checklist has been completed and
the helicopter systems are within normal limits. During the
takeoff, fly a pro file that avoids the cross-hatched or shaded
areas of the height/velocity diagram.

Technique

Refer to

Figure 9-12

(position 1). Bring the helicopter to a

hover and perform a hover and systems check, which includes
power, balance, and flight controls prior to continuing flight.
The power check should include an evaluation of the amount
of excess power available; that is, the difference between the
power being used to hover and the power available at the
existing altitude and temperature conditions. The balance
condition of the helicopter is indicated by the position
of the cyclic when maintaining a stationary hover. Wind
necessitates some cyclic deflection, but there should not be
an extreme deviation from neutral. Flight controls must move
freely, and the hel icopter should respond normally. Then,
visually clear the surrounding area.

Start the helicopter moving by smoothly and slowly eas ing the
cyclic forward (position 2). As the helicopter starts to move
forward, increase the collective, as nec essary, to prevent the
helicopter from sinking and adjust the throttle to maintain
rpm. The increase in power requires an increase in the proper
antitorque pedal to maintain heading. Maintain a straight
takeoff path throughout the takeoff.

While accelerating through effec tive translational lift (position
3), the helicopter begins to climb, and the nose tends to rise
due to increased lift. At this point, adjust the collective to
obtain normal climb power and apply enough forward cyclic
to overcome the tendency of the nose to rise. At position 4,
hold an attitude that allows a smooth acceleration toward
climb ing airspeed and a commensurate gain in altitude so that
the takeoff profile does not take the helicopter through any
of the cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity
diagram. As airspeed increases (position 5), place the aircraft
in trim and allow a crab to take place to maintain ground track
and a more favorable climb configuration. As the helicopter
continues to climb and accel erate to best rate-of-climb, apply
aft cyclic pressure to raise the nose smoothly to the normal
climb attitude.

Common Errors

1. Failing to use sufficient collective pitch to pre vent

loss of altitude prior to attaining transla tional lift.

2. Adding power too rapidly at the beginning of the

transition from hovering to forward flight without
forward cyclic compensation, causing the helicopter
to gain excessive altitude before acquiring airspeed.

3. Assuming an extreme nose-down attitude near the

surface in the transition from hovering to forward
flight.

4. Failing to maintain a straight flightpath over the

surface (ground track).

5.  Failing to maintain proper airspeed during the climb.
6.  Failing to adjust the throttle to maintain proper rpm.
7.  Failing to transition to a level crab to maintain ground

track.

9-13

Helicopter

side movement

Wind movement

Wind Movement

Helicopter Heading

Ground Track

Figure 9-13.

During a slip, the rotor disk is tilted into the wind.

Figure 9-14.

To compensate for wind drift at altitude, crab the

helicopter into the wind.

Normal Takeoff from the Surface

Normal takeoff from the surface is used to move the helicopter
from a position on the surface into effective translational lift
and a normal climb using a minimum amount of power. If the
surface is dusty or covered with loose snow, this technique
provides the most favorable visibility conditions and reduces
the possibility of debris being ingested by the engine.

Technique

Place the helicopter in a stationary position on the sur face.
Lower the collective to the full down position, and reduce
the rpm below operating rpm. Visually clear the area and
select terrain features or other objects to aid in maintaining
the desired track during takeoff and climb out. Increase the
throttle to the proper rpm, and raise the collective slowly
until the helicopter is light on the skids. Hesitate momentarily
and adjust the cyclic and antitorque pedals, as neces sary, to
prevent any surface movement. Continue to apply upward
collective. As the helicopter leaves the ground, use the
cyclic, as necessary, to begin forward movement as altitude
is gained. Continue to acceler ate. As effective translational
lift is attained, the helicopter begins to climb. Adjust attitude
and power, if necessary, to climb in the same manner as a
takeoff from a hover. A second, less efficient, but acceptable,
technique, is to attempt a vertical takeoff to evaluate if power
or lift is sufficient to clear obstructions. This allows the
helicopter to be returned to the takeoff position if required.

Common Errors

1. Departing the surface in an attitude that is too nose-

low. This situation requires the use of exces sive power
to initiate a climb.

2. Using excessive power combined with a level attitude,

which causes a vertical climb, unless needed for
obstructions and landing considerations.

3. Application of the collective that is too abrupt when

departing the surface, causing rpm and heading control
errors.

Crosswind Considerations During Takeoffs

If the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, the
helicopter is flown in a slip during the early stages of the
maneuver.

[Figure 9-13]

The cyclic is held into the wind a

sufficient amount to maintain the desired ground track for
the takeoff. The heading is maintained with the use of the
antitorque pedals. In other words, the rotor is tilted into the
wind so that the sideward movement of the helicopter is
just enough to counter act the crosswind effect. To prevent
the nose from turning in the direction of the rotor tilt, it is
necessary to increase the antitorque pedal pressure on the

side opposite the cyclic.

After approximately 50 feet of altitude is gained, make a
coordinated turn into the wind to maintain the desired ground
track. This is called crabbing into the wind. The stronger the
crosswind, the more the helicopter has to be turned into the
wind to maintain the desired ground track.

[Figure 9-14]

Ground Reference Maneuvers

Ground reference maneuvers may be used as training
exercises to help develop a division of attention between
the flightpath and ground references, and while controlling

9-14

the helicopter and watching for other air craft in the vicinity.
Other examples of ground reference maneuvers are flights
for photographic or observation purposes, such as pipe line
or power line checks. Prior to each maneuver, a clearing turn
should be done to ensure the area is free of conflicting traffic.

Rectangular Course

The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the
ground track of the helicopter is kept equidistant from the
sides of a selected rectangular area. While performing the
maneuver, the altitude and air speed should be held constant.
The rectangular course helps develop recognition of a drift
toward or away from a line parallel to the intended ground
track. This is helpful in recognizing drift toward or from an
airport runway during the various legs of the airport traffic
pattern and is also useful in observation and photographic
flights.

Technique

Maintaining ground track while trying to fly a straight line
can be very difficult for new pilots to do. It is important to
understand the effects of the wind and how to compensate
for this. For this maneuver, pick a square or rectangular
field, or an area bounded on four sides by section lines or
roads, with sides approximately a mile in length. The area
selected should be well away from other air traffic. Fly the
maneuver approximately 500 to 1,000 feet above the ground
as appropriate. If the student finds it difficult to maintain a
proper ground track at that higher altitude, lower the altitude
for better ground reference until they feel more comfortable
and are able to grasp the concept better. Altitude can be raised
up to 1,000 feet as proficiency improves.

Fly the helicopter parallel to and at a uniform distance, about
one-fourth to one-half mile, from the field boundaries, and
not directly above the boundaries. For best results, position
flightpath outside the field boundaries just far enough away
that they may be easily observed from either pilot seat by
looking out the side of the helicopter. If an attempt is made
to fly directly above the edges of the field, there will be no
usable reference points to start and complete the turns. In
addition, the closer the track of the helicop ter is to the field
boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning
points. The edges of the selected field should be seen while
seated in a normal position and looking out the side of the
helicopter during either a left-hand or right-hand course. The
distance of the ground track from the edges of the field should
be the same regardless of whether the course is flown to the
left or right. All turns should be started when the helicopter is
abeam the corners of the field boundaries. The bank nor mally
should not exceed 30°–45° in light winds. Strong winds may
require more bank.

The pilot should understand that when trying to fly a straight

line and maintain a specific heading, aircraft heading must be
adjusted in order to compensate for the winds and stay on the
proper ground track. Also, keep in mind that a constant scan
of flight instruments and outside references aid in maintaining
proper ground track.

Although the rectangular course may be entered from any
direction, this discussion assumes entry on a downwind
heading.

[Figure 9-15]

while approaching the field boundary

on the downwind leg, begin planning for an upcoming turn.
Since there is a tailwind on the downwind leg, the helicopter’s
groundspeed is increased (position 1). During the turn, the
wind causes the heli copter to drift away from the field. To
counteract this effect, the roll-in should be made at a fairly
fast rate with a relatively steep bank (position 2). This is
normally the steepest turn of the maneuver.

As the turn progresses, the tailwind component decreases,
which decreases the groundspeed. Consequently, the bank
angle and rate-of-turn must be reduced gradually to ensure
that upon completion of the turn, the crosswind ground track
continues to be the same distance from the edge of the field.
Upon completion of the turn, the helicopter should be level
and crabbed into the wind in order to maintain the proper
ground track. Keep in mind that in order to maintain proper
ground track the helicopter may have to be flown almost
sideways depending on the amount of wind. The forward
cyclic that is applied for airspeed will be in the direction of
the intended flight path. For this example, it will be in the
direction of the downwind corner of the field. However, since
the wind is now pushing the helicopter away from the field,
establish the proper drift correction by heading slightly into
the wind. Therefore, the turn should be greater than a 90°
change in heading (position 3). If the turn has been made
properly, the field boundary again appears to be one-fourth
to one-half mile away. While on the crosswind leg, the wind
correction should be adjusted, as necessary, to maintain a
uniform distance from the field boundary (position 4).

As the next field boundary is being approached (position 5),
plan for the next turn. Since a wind correction angle is being
held into the wind and toward the field, this next turn requires
a turn of less than 90°. Since there is now a headwind, the
groundspeed decreases during the turn, the bank initially must
be medium and progressively decrease as the turn pro ceeds.
To complete the turn, time the rollout so that the helicopter
becomes level at a point aligned with the corner of the field
just as the longitudinal axis of the helicopter again becomes
parallel to the field boundary (position 6). The distance from
the field boundary should be the same as on the other sides
of the field.

9-16

The pilot can choose to use a road, a fence, or a railroad
for a reference line. Regardless of what is used, it should
be straight for a considerable distance and should extend as
nearly perpendicular to the wind as possible. The object of
S-turns is to fly a pattern of two half cir cles of equal size
on opposite sides of the reference line.

[Figure 9-16]

The

maneuver should be performed at a constant altitude between
500 and 800 feet above the terrain. As mentioned previously,
if the student pilot is having a difficult time maintaining the
proper altitude and airspeed, have him or her attempt the
S-turn at a lower altitude, providing better ground reference.
The discussion that follows is based on choosing a reference
line perpendicular to the wind and starting the maneuver with
the helicopter facing downwind.

As the helicopter crosses the reference line, immedi-
ately establish a bank. This initial bank is the steepest
used throughout the maneuver since the helicopter is
headed directly downwind and the groundspeed is greatest
(position 1). Gradually reduce the bank, as necessary, to
describe a ground track of a half circle. Time the turn so
that, as the rollout is completed, the helicopter is crossing
the reference line perpendicular to it and head ing directly
upwind (position 2). Immediately enter a bank in the opposite
direction to begin the second half of the “S” (position 3).
Since the helicopter is now on an upwind heading, this bank
(and the one just completed before crossing the reference
line) is the shallowest in the maneuver. Gradually increase
the bank, as necessary, to describe a ground track that is a
half circle identical in size to the one previously completed on
the other side of the refer ence line (position 4). The steepest
bank in this turn should be attained just prior to rollout when
the helicopter is approaching the reference line nearest the
downwind heading. Time the turn so that as the rollout is
com plete, the helicopter is perpendicular to the reference
line and is again heading directly downwind (position 5).

In summary, the angle of bank required at any given
point in the maneuver is dependent on the ground speed.
The faster the groundspeed is, the steeper the bank is; the
slower the groundspeed is, the shallower the bank is. To
express it another way, the more nearly the helicopter is to a
downwind heading, the steeper the bank; the more nearly it
is to an upwind heading, the shallower the bank. In addition
to varying the angle of bank to correct for drift in order to
maintain the proper radius of turn, the helicopter must also
be flown with a drift correction angle (crab) in relation to its
ground track; except, of course, when it is on direct upwind
or downwind headings or there is no wind.

One would normally think of the fore and aft axis of the
heli copter as being tangent to the ground track pattern at
each point. However, this is not the case. During the turn on

the upwind side of the reference line (side from which the
wind is blowing), crab the nose of the heli copter toward the
outside of the circle. During the turn on the downwind side
of the reference line (side of the reference line opposite to the
direction from which the wind is blowing), crab the nose of
the helicopter toward the inside of the circle. In either case, it
is obvious that the helicopter is being crabbed into the wind
just as it is when trying to maintain a straight ground track.
The amount of crab depends on the wind velocity and how
close the helicopter is to a crosswind position. The stronger
the wind is, the greater the crab angle is at any given position
for a turn of a given radius. The more nearly the helicopter
is to a crosswind position, the greater the crab angle. The
maximum crab angle should be at the point of each half circle
farthest from the reference line.

A standard radius for S-turns cannot be specified, since the
radius depends on the airspeed of the helicopter, the velocity
of the wind, and the initial bank chosen for entry. The only
standard is crossing the ground reference line straight and
level and having equal radius semi-circles on both sides.

Common Errors

1.  Using antitorque pedal pressures to assist turns.
2.  Slipping or skidding in the turn.
3.  An unsymmetrical ground track during S-turns across

a road.

4.  Improper correction for wind drift.
5.  Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
6.  Excessive bank angles.

Turns Around a Point

This training maneuver requires flying constant radius
turns around a preselected point on the ground using a bank
angle of approximately 30°–45°, while maintaining both
a constant altitude and the same distance from the point
throughout the maneuver.

[Figure 9-17]

The objective, as in

other ground reference maneuvers, is to develop the ability
to subconsciously control the helicopter while dividing
attention between flightpath, how the winds are affecting
the turn and ground references and watching for other air
traffic in the vicinity. This is also used in high reconnaissance,
observation, and photography flight.

Technique

The factors and principles of drift correction that are involved
in S-turns are also applicable to this maneu ver. As in other
ground track maneuvers, a constant radius around a point
requires the pilot to change the angle of bank constantly
and make numerous control changes to compensate for

9-17

wnw

nd half of

cle

pwi

half of c

rcle

Wind

Steepest bank

Shallowest bank

Shallower bank

Steeper bank

Figure 9-17.

Turns around a point.

Takeoff leg (into the wind)

Final approach leg

Crosswind leg

Base leg

Downwind leg

Wind

Figure 9-18.

A standard fixed-wing traffic pattern consists of left

turns, has five designated legs, and is flown at 1,000' AGL.

the wind. The closer the helicopter is to a direct downwind
heading at which the groundspeed is greatest, the steeper the
bank and the greater the rate of turn required to establish the
proper wind correc tion angle. The closer the helicopter is to
a direct upwind heading at which the groundspeed is least,
the shallower the bank and the lower the rate of turn required
to establish the proper wind correction angle. Therefore,
throughout the maneuver, the bank and rate of turn must
be varied gradually and in proportion to the groundspeed
corrections made for the wind.

The point selected for turns should be prominent and easily
distinguishable, yet small enough to present a precise
reference. Isolated trees, crossroads, or other similar small
landmarks are usually suitable. The point should be in an area
away from communities, livestock, or groups of people on
the ground to prevent possible annoyance or hazard to others.
Additionally, the area should be clear and suitable for any
emergency landings should they be required.

Just as S-turns require that the helicopter be turned into the
wind in addition to varying the bank, so do turns around a
point. During the downwind half of the circle, the helicopter’s
nose must be progressively turned toward the inside of the
circle; during the upwind half, the nose must be progressively
turned toward the outside. The downwind half of the turn
around the point may be compared to the downwind side of
the S-turn, while the upwind half of the turn around a point
may be compared to the upwind side of the S-turn.

Upon gaining experience in performing turns around a point
and developing a good understanding of the effects of wind

drift and varying of the bank angle and wind correction angle
as required, entry into the maneuver may be from any point.
When entering this maneuver at any point, the radius of the
turn must be carefully selected, taking into account the wind
velocity and groundspeed so that an excessive bank is not
required later to maintain the proper ground track.

Common Errors

1.  Faulty entry technique.
2.  Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention.
3.  Uncoordinated flight control application.
4.  Improper correction for wind drift.
5.  Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
6.   Failure to maintain an equal distance around the point.
7.  Excessive bank angles.

Traffic Patterns

A traffic pattern promotes safety by establishing a common
track to help pilots determine their landing order and provide
common reference. A traffic pattern is also useful to control
the flow of traffic, par ticularly at airports without operating
control towers. It affords a measure of safety, separation,
protection, and administrative control over arriving,
departing, and circling aircraft. Due to specialized operating
character istics, airplanes and helicopters do not mix well
in the same traffic environment. At multiple-use airports,
regulation states that helicopters should always avoid the
flow of fixed-wing traf fic. To do this, be familiar with the
patterns typically flown by airplanes. In addition, learn how
to fly these patterns in case air traf fic control (ATC) requests
a fixed-wing traffic pattern be flown. Traffic patterns are
initially taught during the day. Traffic patterns at night may
need to be adjusted; for more information, refer to Chapter
12, Night Operations.

9-18

Takeoff leg (into the wind)

Final approach leg

Crosswind leg

Base leg

Downwind leg

Wind

Figure 9-19.

A standard helicopter traffic pattern consists of right

turns, has 5 designated legs, and is flown at 500' AGL.

A normal airplane traffic pattern is rectangular, has five named
legs, and a designated altitude, usually 1,000 feet AGL. While
flying the traffic pattern, pilots should always keep in mind
noise abatement rules and flying friendly to avoid dwellings
and livestock. A pattern in which all turns are to the left is
called a standard pattern.

[Figure 9-18]

The takeoff leg (item

1) normally consists of the aircraft’s flightpath after takeoff.
This leg is also called the departure leg. Turn to the crosswind
leg (item 2) after passing the departure end of the runway when
at a safe altitude. Fly the downwind leg (item 3) parallel to the
runway at the designated traffic pattern altitude and distance
from the runway. Begin the base leg (item 4) at a point selected
according to other traffic and wind conditions. If the wind is
very strong, begin the turn sooner than normal. If the wind
is light, delay the turn to base. The final approach (item 5)
is the path the air craft flies immediately prior to touchdown.

Flying a fixed wing traffic pattern at 1,000 feet AGL upon
the request of ATC should not be a problem for a helicopter
unless conducting specific maneuvers that require specific
altitudes. There are variations at different localities and at
airports with operating control towers. For example, ATC
may have airplanes in a left turn pattern (as airplane pilots
are usually seated in the left), seat and a right turn pattern for
helicopters (as those pilots are usually in the right seat). This
arrangement affords the best view from each of the respective
cockpits. Always consult the Airport/Facility Directory for
the traffic pattern procedures at your airport/heliport.

When approaching an airport with an operating control tower
in a helicopter, it is possible to expedite traffic by stating
intentions. The communication consists of:

1.  The helicopter’s call sign, “Helicopter 8340J.”
2.  The helicopter’s position, “10 miles west.”
3.  The “request for landing and hover to ...”

To avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic, the tower often
clears direct to an approach point or to a particular runway
intersection nearest the destination point. At uncontrolled
airports, if at all possible, adhere to standard practices and
patterns.

Traffic pattern entry procedures at an airport with an operating
control tower are specified by the controller. At uncontrolled
airports, traffic pattern altitudes and entry procedures may
vary according to established local procedures. Helicopter
pilots should be aware of the standard airplane traffic
pattern and avoid it. Generally, helicopters make a lower
altitude pattern opposite from the fixed wing pattern and
make their approaches to some point other than the runway
in use by the fixed wing traffic. Chapter 7 of the Airplane
flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-3 discusses this in greater

detail. For information concerning traffic pattern and landing
direction, utilize airport advisory service or UNICOM, when
available.

The standard departure procedure when using the fixed-
wing traffic pattern is usually a straight-out, down wind, or
right-hand departure. When a control tower is in operation,
request the type of departure desired. In most cases, helicopter
departures are made into the wind unless obstacles or traffic
dictate otherwise. At airports without an operating control
tower, comply with the departure procedures established for
that airport, if any.

A helicopter traffic pattern is flown at 500-1,000 feet AGL
depending on considerations such as terrain, obstacles, and
other aircraft traffic.

[Figure 9-19]

This keeps the helicopter

out of the flow of fixed-wing traffic. A helicopter may take
off from a helipad into the wind with a turn to the right after
300 feet AGL or as needed to be in range of forced landing
areas. When 500 feet AGL is attained, a right turn to parallel
the takeoff path is made for the downwind. Then, as the
intended landing point is about 45 degrees behind the abeam
position of the helicopter, a right turn is made, and a descent
is begun from downwind altitude to approximately 300 feet
AGL for a base leg.

As the helicopter nears the final approach path, the turn to
final should be made considering winds and obstructions.
Depending on obstructions and forced landing areas, the final
approach may need to be accomplished from as high as 500
feet AGL. The landing area should always be in sight and
the angle of approach should never be too high (indicating
that the base leg is too close) to the landing area or too low
(indicating that the landing area is too far away).

Approaches

An approach is the transition from traffic pattern alti tude
to either a hover or to the surface. The approach should

9-19

Imaginary centerline

Reference point

Wind

Figure 9-20.

Plan the turn to final so the helicopter rolls out on an

imaginary extension of the centerline for the final approach path.
This path should neither angle to the landing area, as shown by
the helicopter on the left, nor require an S-turn, as shown by the
helicopter on the right.

terminate at the hover altitude with the rate of descent and
groundspeed reaching zero at the same time. Approaches
are categorized according to the angle of descent as normal,
steep, or shallow. In this chapter, concentration is on the
normal approach. Steep and shallow approaches are discussed
in the next chapter.
Use the type of approach best suited to the existing conditions.
These conditions may include obstacles, size and surface of
the landing area, density altitude, wind direction and speed,
and weight. Regardless of the type of approach, it should
always be made to a specific, predetermined landing spot.

Normal Approach to a Hover

A normal approach uses a descent angle of between 7° and
12°.

Technique

On final approach, at the recommended approach airspeed
and at approximately 300 feet AGL, the helicopter should
be on the correct ground track (or ground alignment) for the
intended landing site, but the axis of the helicopter does not

have to be aligned until about 50-100 feet AGL to facilitate
a controlled approach.

[Figure 9-20]

Just prior to reaching

the desired approach angle, begin the approach by lowering
the collective sufficiently to get the helicopter decelerating
and descending down the approach angle. With the decrease
in the collective, the nose tends to pitch down, requiring
aft cyclic to maintain the recommended approach airspeed
attitude. Adjust antitorque pedals, as necessary, to maintain
trim. Pilots should visualize the angle from the landing
point to the middle of the skids or landing gear underneath
them in the cockpit and maneuver the helicopter down that
imaginary slope until the helicopter is at a hover centered
over the landing point or touching down centered on the
landing point. The most important standard for a normal
approach is maintaining a consistent angle of approach to
the termination point. The collective controls the angle of
approach. Use the cyclic to control the rate of closure or how
fast the helicopter is moving towards the touchdown point.
Maintain entry airspeed until the apparent groundspeed and
rate of closure appear to be increasing. At this point, slowly
begin decelerating with slight aft cyclic, and smoothly lower
the collective to maintain approach angle. Use the cyclic to
maintain a rate of closure equivalent to a brisk walk.

At approximately 25 knots, depending on wind, the helicopter
begins to lose effective translational lift. To compensate for
loss of effective translational lift, increase the collective to
maintain the approach angle, while maintaining the proper
rpm. The increase of collective pitch tends to make the nose
rise, requiring forward cyclic to maintain the proper rate of
closure.

As the helicopter approaches the recommended hover
altitude, increase the collective sufficiently to maintain the
hover. Helicopters require near maximum power to land
because the inertia of the helicopter in a descent must be
overcome by lift in the rotor system. At the same time, apply
aft cyclic to stop any forward movement while controlling
the heading with antitorque pedals.

Common Errors

1. Failing to maintain proper rpm during the entire

approach.

2. Improper use of the collective in controlling the angle

of descent.

3. Failing to make antitorque pedal corrections to

compensate for collective changes during the
approach.

4. Maintaining a constant airspeed on final approach

9-20

instead of an apparent brisk walk.

5. Failing to simultaneously arrive at hovering height

and attitude with zero groundspeed.

6. Low rpm in transition to the hover at the end of the

approach.

7. Using too much aft cyclic close to the surface, which

may result in tail rotor strikes.

8. Failure to crab above 100’AGL and slip below

100’AGL.

Normal Approach to the Surface

A normal approach to the surface or a no-hover landing is
often used if loose snow or dusty surface conditions exist.
These situations could cause severely restricted visibility, or
the engine could possibly ingest debris when the heli copter
comes to a hover. The approach is the same as the normal
approach to a hover; however, instead of termi nating at a
hover, continue the approach to touchdown. Touchdown
should occur with the skids level, zero groundspeed, and a
rate of descent approaching zero.

Technique

As the helicopter nears the surface, increase the collec tive, as
necessary, to cushion the landing on the sur face, terminate in
a skids-level attitude with no forward movement.

Common Errors

1. Terminating to a hover, and then making a vertical

landing.

2. Touching down with forward movement.
3. Approaching too slow, requiring the use of exces sive

power during the termination.

4. Approaching too fast, causing a hard landing
5. Not maintaining skids aligned with direction of travel

at touchdown. Any movement or misalignment of the
skids or gear can induce dynamic rollover

Crosswind During Approaches

During a crosswind approach, crab into the wind. At
approximately 50-100 feet of altitude, use a slip to align the
fuselage with the ground track. The rotor is tilted into the
wind with cyclic pressure so that the sideward movement
of the helicopter and wind drift counteracts each other.
Maintain the heading and ground track with the antitorque
pedals. Under crosswind approaches, ground track is always
controlled by the cyclic movement. The heading of the

helicopter in hovering maneuvers is always controlled by
the pedals. The collective controls power, which is altitude
at a hover. This technique should be used on any type of
crosswind approach, whether it is a shallow, normal, or
steep approach.

Go-Around

A go-around is a procedure for remaining airborne after
an intended landing is discontinued. A go-around may be
necessary when:

•

Instructed by the control tower.

•

Traffic conflict occurs.

• The helicopter is in a position from which it is not

safe to continue the approach. Any time an approach
is uncomfortable, incorrect, or potentially dangerous,
abandon the approach. The deci sion to make a go-
around should be positive and initiated before a critical
situation develops. When the decision is made, carry it
out without hesitation. In most cases, when initiating
the go-around, power is at a low setting. Therefore,
the first response is to increase collective to takeoff
power. This movement is coordinated with the throttle
to maintain rpm, and with the proper antitorque pedal
to control heading. Then, establish a climb attitude
and maintain climb speed to go around for another
approach.

Chapter Summary

This chapter introduced basic flight maneuvers and the
techniques to perform each of them. Common errors and why
they happen were also described to help the pilot achieve a
better understanding of the maneuver.

10-2

Reconnaissance Procedures

When planning to land or takeoff at an unfa miliar site,
gather as much information as possible about the area.
Reconnaissance techniques are ways of gathering this
information.

High Reconnaissance

The purpose of conducting a high reconnaissance is to
determine direction and speed of the wind, a touchdown
point, suitability of the landing area, approach and departure
axes, and obstacles for both the approach and departure.
The pilot should also give particular consideration to forced
landing areas in case of an emergency.

Altitude, airspeed, and flight pattern for a high recon naissance
are governed by wind and terrain features. It is important to
strike a balance between a reconnaissance conducted too high
and one too low. It should not be flown so low that a pilot
must divide attention between studying the area and avoiding
obstructions to flight. A high reconnaissance should be flown
at an alti tude of 300 to 500 feet above the surface. A general
rule to follow is to ensure that sufficient altitude is available
at all times to land into the wind in case of engine fail ure. In
addition, a 45° angle of observation generally allows the best
estimate of the height of barriers, the presence of obstacles,
the size of the area, and the slope of the terrain. Always
maintain safe altitudes and air speeds and keep a forced
landing area within reach whenever possible.

Low Reconnaissance

A low reconnaissance is accomplished during the approach to
the landing area. When flying the approach, verify what was
observed in the high recon naissance, and check for anything
new that may have been missed at a higher altitude, such as
wires and their supporting structures (poles, towers, etc.),
slopes, and small crevices. If the pilot determines that the
area chosen is safe to land in, the approach can be continued.
However, the decision to land or go around must be made
prior to decelerating below effective translational lift (ETL),
or before descending below the barriers surrounding the
confined area.

If a decision is made to complete the approach, termi nate
the landing to a hover in order to check the landing point
carefully before lowering the helicopter to the surface.
Under certain conditions, it may be desirable to continue
the approach to the surface. Once the heli copter is on the
ground, maintain operating revolutions per minute (rpm)
until the stability of the helicopter has been checked to be
sure it is in a secure and safe position.

Ground Reconnaissance

Prior to departing an unfamiliar location, make a detailed
analysis of the area. There are several factors to consider
during this evaluation. Besides determining the best departure
path and identifying all hazards in the area, select a route that
gets the helicopter from its present position to the take off
point while avoiding all hazards, especially to the tail rotor
and landing gear.

Some things to consider while formulating a takeoff plan
are the aircraft load, height of obstacles, the shape of the
area, direction of the wind, and surface conditions. Surface
conditions can consist of dust, sand and snow, as well as
mud and rocks. Dust landings and snow landings can lead
to a brownout or whiteout condition, which is the loss of
the horizon reference. Disorientation may occur, leading to
ground contact, often with fatal results. Taking off or landing
on uneven terrain, mud, or rocks can cause the tail rotor to
strike the surface or if the skids get caught can lead to dynamic
rollover. If the helicopter is heavily loaded, determine if there
is sufficient power to clear the obstacles. Sometimes it is better
to pick a path over shorter obstacles than to take off directly
into the wind. Also evaluate the shape of the area so that a path
can be chosen that will provide you the most room to maneuver
and abort the take off if necessary. Positioning the helicopter
at the most downwind portion of the confined area gives the
pilot the most distance to clear obstacles.

Wind analysis also helps determine the route of takeoff.
The prevailing wind can be altered by obstructions on
the departure path and can significantly affect aircraft
performance. There are several ways to check the wind
direction before taking off. One technique is to watch the tops
of the trees; another is to look for any smoke in the area. If
there is a body of water in the area, look to see which way the
water is rippling. If wind direction is still in question revert
to the last report that was received by either the Automatic
Terminal Information Service (ATIS) or airport tower.

Maximum Performance Takeoff

A maximum performance takeoff is used to climb at a steep
angle to clear barriers in the flightpath. It can be used when
taking off from small areas surrounded by high obstacles.
Allow for a vertical takeoff, although not preferred, if
obstruction clearance could be in doubt. Before attempting
a maximum performance takeoff, know thoroughly the
capabilities and limitations of the equipment. Also consider
the wind velocity, temperature, density alti tude, gross weight,
center of gravity (CG) location, and other factors affecting
pilot technique and the perform ance of the helicopter.

10-3

Figure 10-1.

Maximum performance takeoff.

To accomplish this type of takeoff safely, there must be
enough power to hover out of ground effect (OGE) in order
to prevent the helicopter from sinking back to the surface
after becoming airborne. A hover power check can be used to
deter mine if there is sufficient power available to accomplish
this maneuver.

The angle of climb for a maximum performance takeoff
depends on existing conditions. The more critical the
conditions are, such as high-density altitudes, calm winds,
and high gross weights, the shallower the angle of climb is. In
light or no wind conditions, it might be necessary to operate
in the crosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity
diagram during the begin ning of this maneuver. Therefore,
be aware of the calculated risk when operating in these areas.
An engine failure at a low altitude and airspeed could place
the helicopter in a dangerous position, requiring a high degree
of skill in making a safe autorotative landing.

Technique

Before attempting a maximum performance takeoff,
reposition the helicopter to the most downwind area to allow a
longer takeoff climb, then bring the helicopter to a hover, and
determine the excess power available by noting the difference
between the power available and that required to hover.
Also, perform a balance and flight control check and note
the position of the cyclic. If the takeoff path allows, position
the helicopter into the wind and return the helicopter to the
surface. Normally, this maneuver is initiated from the surface.
After checking the area for obstacles and other aircraft, select
reference points along the takeoff path to maintain ground
track. Also consider alternate routes in case the maneuver is
not possible.

[Figure 10-1]

Begin the takeoff by getting the helicopter light on the skids
(position 1). Pause and neutralize all aircraft movement.
Slowly increase the collective and position the cyclic

to lift off in a 40-knot attitude. This is approximately
the same attitude as when the helicopter is light on the
skids. Continue to increase the collec tive slowly until the
maximum power available is reached (takeoff power is
normally 10 percent above power required for hover). This
large collective movement requires a substantial increase
in pedal pressure to maintain heading (position 2). Use the
cyclic, as necessary, to control movement toward the desired
flightpath and, therefore, climb angle during the maneuver
(position 3). Maintain rotor rpm at its maxi mum, and do
not allow it to decrease since you would probably need to
lower the collective to regain it. Maintain these inputs until
the helicopter clears the obstacle, or until reaching 50 feet
for demonstration purposes (position 4). Then, establish a
normal climb attitude and power setting (position 5). As
in any maximum performance maneuver, the techniques
used affect the actual results. Smooth, coordinated inputs
coupled with precise control allow the helicopter to attain
its maximum performance.

An acceptable method when departing from an area that does
not allow for a takeoff with forward airspeed is to perform a
vertical takeoff. This technique allows the pilot to descend
vertically back into the confined area if the helicopter
does not have the performance to clear the surrounding
obstacles. During this maneuver, the helicopter must climb
vertically and not be allowed to accelerate forward until the
surrounding obstacles have been cleared. If not, a situation
may develop where the helicopter does not have sufficient
climb performance to avoid obstructions and may not have
power to descend back to the takeoff point. The vertical
takeoff might not be as efficient as the climbing profile but
is much easier to abort from a vertical position directly over
the landing point. The vertical takeoff, however, places the
helicopter in the

avoid

area of the height/velocity diagram

for a longer time. This maneuver requires hover OGE power
to accomplish.

Common Errors

1. Failure to consider performance data, including height-

velocity diagram.

2. Nose too low initially causing horizontal flight rather

than more vertical flight.

3.  Failure to maintain maximum permissible rpm.
4.  Abrupt control movements.
5.  Failure to resume normal climb power and air speed

after clearing the obstacle.

Running/Rolling Takeoff

A running takeoff in helicopter with fixed landing gear,
such as skids, skis or floats, or a rolling takeoff in a

10-4

Figure 10-2.

Running/rolling takeoff.

wheeled helicopter is sometimes used when conditions of
load and/or density altitude prevent a sus tained hover at
normal hovering height. For wheeled helicopters, a rolling
takeoff is sometimes used to minimize the downwash
created during a takeoff from a hover. Avoid a running/
rolling maneuver if there is not sufficient power to hover,
at least momentarily. If the helicopter cannot be hovered,
its performance is unpredictable. If the helicopter cannot
be raised off the surface at all, sufficient power might not
be available to accomplish the maneuver safely. If a pilot
cannot momentarily hover the helicopter, wait for conditions
to improve or off-load some of the weight.

To accomplish a safe running or rolling takeoff, the sur face
area must be of sufficient length and smoothness, and there
cannot be any barriers in the flightpath to interfere with a
shallow climb.

Technique

Refer to

Figure 10-2

. To begin the maneuver, first align the

helicopter to the takeoff path. Next, increase the throttle to
obtain takeoff rpm, and increase the collec tive smoothly
until the helicopter becomes light on the skids or landing
gear (position 1). If taking off from the water, ensure that
the floats are mostly out of the water. Then, move the cyclic
slightly forward of the neutral hovering position, and apply
additional collective to start the forward movement (position
2). To simulate a reduced power condition during practice,
use one to two inches less manifold pressure, or three to five
percent less torque than that required to hover. The landing
gear must stay aligned with the takeoff direction until the
helicopter leaves the surface to avoid dynamic rollover.

Maintain a straight ground track with lateral cyclic and
heading with antitorque pedals until a climb is established.
As effective translational lift is gained, the helicopter
becomes airborne in a fairly level attitude with little or no
pitching (position 3). Maintain an altitude to take advan tage
of ground effect, and allow the airspeed to increase toward
normal climb speed. Then, follow a climb profile that takes
the helicopter through the clear area of the height-velocity

diagram (position 4). During practice maneuvers, after having
climbed to an altitude of 50 feet, establish the normal climb
power setting and attitude.

NOTE: It should be remembered that if a running takeoff is
necessary for most modern helicopters, the helicopter is very
close to, or has exceeded the maximum operating weight for
the conditions (i.e., temperature and altitude).

The height/velocity parameters should be respected at all
times. The helicopter should be flown to a suitable altitude
to allow a safe acceleration in accordance with the height-
velocity diagram.

Common Errors

1. Failing to align heading and ground track to keep

surface friction to a minimum.

2. Attempting to become airborne before obtaining

effective translational lift.

3. Using too much forward cyclic during the surface run.
4. Lowering the nose too much after becoming air borne,

resulting in the helicopter settling back to the surface.

5. Failing to remain below the recommended altitude

until airspeed approaches normal climb speed.

Rapid Deceleration or Quick Stop

This maneuver is used to decelerate from forward flight to a
hover. It is often used to abort takeoffs, to stop if something
blocks the helicopter flightpath, or simply to terminate an air
taxi maneuver, as mentioned in the Aeronautical Information
Manual (AIM). A quick stop is usually practiced on a runway,
taxiway, or over a large grassy area away from other traffic
or obstacles.

Technique

The maneuver requires a high degree of coordination of
all controls. It is practiced at a height that permits a safe
clearance between the tail rotor and the surface throughout
the maneuver, especially at the point where the pitch attitude
is highest. The height at completion should be no higher
than the maximum safe hovering height prescribed by that
particular helicopter’s manufacturer. In selecting a height at
which to begin the maneuver, take into account the overall
length of the helicopter and its height/velocity diagram. Even
though the maneuver is called a rapid deceleration or quick
stop, it is performed slowly and smoothly with the primary
emphasis on coordination.

During training, always perform this maneuver into the wind

[Figure 10-3, position 1]

. After leveling off at an altitude

10-5

Figure 10-3.

Rapid deceleration or quick stop.

between 25 and 40 feet, depending upon the manufacturer’s
recommendations, accelerate to the desired entry speed,
which is approximately 45 knots for most training helicopters
(position 2). The altitude chosen should be high enough to
avoid danger to the tail rotor during the flare, but low enough
to stay out of the hazardous areas of that helicopter’s height-
velocity diagram throughout the maneuver. In addition, this
altitude should be low enough that the helicopter can be
brought to a hover during the recovery.

At position 3, initiate the deceleration by applying aft cyclic
to reduce forward groundspeed. Simultaneously, lower the
collective, as necessary, to counteract any climbing tendency.
The timing must be exact. If too little collective is taken out
for the amount of aft cyclic applied, the helicopter climbs. If
too much downward collective is applied, the helicopter will
descend. A rapid application of aft cyclic requires an equally
rapid application of down collective. As collective is lowered,
apply proper antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading,
and adjust the throttle to maintain rpm. The G loading on the
rotor system depends on the pitch-up attitude. If the attitude is
too high, the rotor system may stall and cause the helicopter
to impact the surface.

After attaining the desired speed (position 4), initiate the
recovery by lowering the nose and allowing the helicopter
to descend to a normal hovering height in level flight and
zero groundspeed (position 5). During the recovery, increase
collective pitch, as necessary, to stop the helicopter at normal
hovering height, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and apply
proper antitorque pedal pressure, as necessary, to maintain
heading. During the maneuver, visualize rotating about the
tail rotor’s horizontal axis until a normal hovering height is
reached.

Common Errors

1. Initiating the maneuver by lowering the collective

without aft cyclic pressure to maintain altitude.

2. Initially applying aft cyclic stick too rapidly, causing

the helicopter to balloon (climb).

3. Failing to effectively control the rate of deceleration

to accomplish the desired results.

4. Allowing the helicopter to stop forward motion in a

tail-low attitude.

5. Failing to maintain proper rotor rpm.
6. Waiting too long to apply collective pitch (power)

during the recovery, resulting in an overtorque
situation when collective pitch is applied rapidly.

7. Failing to maintain a safe clearance over the terrain.
8. Using antitorque pedals improperly, resulting in erratic

heading changes.

9. Using an excessively nose-high attitude.

Steep Approach

A steep approach is used primarily when there are obstacles
in the approach path that are too high to allow a normal
approach. A steep approach permits entry into most confined
areas and is sometimes used to avoid areas of turbulence
around a pinnacle. An approach angle of approximately 13°
to 15° is considered a steep approach.

[Figure 10-4]

Caution

must be exercised to avoid the parameters for vortex ring
state (20–100 percent of available power applied, airspeed
of less than 10 knots, and a rate of descent greater than 300
feet per minute (fpm)). For additional information on vortex
ring state (formerly referenced as settling-with-power), refer
to Chapter 11, Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards.

10-6

15° Approach angle

Figure 10-4.

Steep approach to a hover.

Technique

On final approach, maintain track with the intended
touchdown point and into the wind as much as possible at the
recommended approach airspeed

[Figure 10-4, position 1]

When intercepting an approach angle of 13° to 15°, begin
the approach by lowering the collective sufficiently to start
the helicopter descending down the approach path and
decelerating (position 2). Use the proper antitorque pedal for
trim. Since this angle is steeper than a normal approach angle,
reduce the collective more than that required for a normal
approach. Continue to decelerate with slight aft cyclic and
smoothly lower the collective to maintain the approach angle.

The intended touchdown point may not always be visible
throughout the approach, especially when landing to a hover.
Pilots must learn to cue in to other references that are parallel
to the intended landing area that will help them maintain
ground track and position.

Constant management of approach angle and airspeed is
essential to any approach. Aft cyclic is required to decelerate
sooner than with a normal approach, and the rate of closure
becomes apparent at a higher altitude. Maintain the approach
angle and rate of descent with the collective, rate of closure
with the cyclic, and trim with antitorque pedals.

The helicopter should be kept in trim just prior to loss of
effective translational lift (approximately 25 knots). Below
100 feet above ground level (AGL), the antitorque pedals
should be adjusted to align the helicopter with the intended
touchdown point. Visualize the location of the tail rotor
behind the helicopter and fly the landing gear to 3 feet above
the intended landing point. In small confined areas, the pilot
must precisely position the helicopter over the intended
landing area. Therefore, the approach must stop at that point.

Loss of effective translational lift occurs higher in a steep
approach (position 3), requiring an increase in the collective
to prevent settling, and more forward cyclic to achieve
the proper rate of closure. Once the intended landing area
is reached, terminate the approach to a hover with zero
groundspeed (position 4). If the approach has been executed
properly, the helicopter will come to a halt at a hover altitude
of 3 feet over the intended landing point with very little
additional power required to hold the hover.

The pilot must remain aware that any wind effect is lost once
the aircraft has descended below the barriers surrounding a
confined area, causing the aircraft to settle more quickly.
Additional power may be needed on a strong wind condition
as the helicopter descends below the barriers.

Common Errors

1. Failing to maintain proper rpm during the entire

approach.

2. Using collective improperly in maintaining the

selected angle of descent.

3. Failing to make antitorque pedal corrections to

compensate for collective pitch changes during the
approach.

4. Slowing airspeed excessively in order to remain on

the proper angle of descent.

5. Failing to determine when effective transla tional lift

is being lost.

6. Failing to arrive at hovering height and attitude, and

zero groundspeed almost simultaneously.

7. Utilizing low rpm in transition to the hover at the end

of the approach.

8. Using too much aft cyclic close to the surface, which

may result in the tail rotor striking the sur face.

9. Failure to align landing gear with direction of travel

no later than beginning of loss of translational lift.

Shallow Approach and Running/Roll-On

Landing

Use a shallow approach and running landing when a
high-density altitude, a high gross weight condition, or
some combination thereof, is such that a normal or steep
approach cannot be made because of insufficient power
to hover.

[Figure 10-5]

To compensate for this lack of

power, a shallow approach and running landing makes
use of translational lift until surface contact is made. If
flying a wheeled helicopter, a roll-on landing can be used

10-7

5° Approach angle

Figure 10-5.

Shallow approach and running landing.

to minimize the effect of downwash. The glide angle for a
shallow approach is approximately 3° to 5°. This angle is
similar to the angle used on an instrument landing system
(ILS) approach. Since the helicopter is sliding or rolling
to a stop during this maneuver, the landing area should
be smooth, and the landing gear must be aligned with the
direction of travel to prevent dynamic rollover and must be
long enough to accomplish this task. After landing, ensure
that the pitch of the rotor blades is not too far aft as the main
rotor blades could contact the tailboom.

Technique

A shallow approach is initiated in the same manner as the
normal approach except that a shallower angle of descent is
maintained. The power reduction to initiate the desired angle
of descent is less than that for a normal approach since the
angle of descent is less (position 1).

As the collective is lowered, maintain heading with proper
antitorque pedal pressure and rpm with the throttle. Maintain
approach airspeed until the apparent rate of closure appears
to be increasing. Then, begin to slow the helicopter with aft
cyclic (position 2).

As in normal and steep approaches, the primary control
for the angle and rate of descent is the collective, while the
cyclic primarily controls the groundspeed. However, there
must be a coordination of all the con trols for the maneuver
to be accomplished successfully. The helicopter should
arrive at the point of touchdown at or slightly above effective
translational lift. Since translational lift diminishes rapidly
at slow airspeeds, the deceleration must be coordinated
smoothly, at the same time keeping enough lift to prevent
the helicopter from settling abruptly.

Just prior to touchdown, place the helicopter in a level
attitude with the cyclic, and maintain heading with the
antitorque pedals. Use the cyclic to keep the direction of
travel and ground track identical (position 3). Allow the
helicopter to descend gently to the surface in a straight- and-
level attitude, cushioning the landing with the collective.
After surface contact, move the cyclic slightly forward to
ensure clearance between the tail boom and the rotor disk.

Use the cyclic to maintain the surface track (position 4).
A pilot normally holds the collective stationary until the
helicopter stops; however, to get more braking action, lower
the collective slightly.

Keep in mind that, due to the increased ground friction when
the collective is lowered or if the landing is being executed
to a rough or irregular surface, the helicopter may come to
an abrupt stop and the nose might pitch forward. Exercise
caution not to correct this pitching movement with aft cyclic,
which could result in the rotor making contact with the tail
boom. An abrupt stop may also cause excessive transmission
movement resulting in the transmission contacting its mount.
During the landing, maintain normal rpm with the throttle
and directional control with the antitorque pedals.

For wheeled helicopters, use the same technique except
after landing, lower the collective, neutralize the controls,
and apply the brakes, as necessary, to slow the helicopter.
Do not use aft cyclic when bringing the helicopter to a stop.

Common Errors

1. Assuming excessive nose-high attitude to slow the

helicopter near the surface.

2. Utilizing insufficient collective and throttle to cushion

a landing.

3. Failure to maintain heading resulting in a turning or

pivoting motion.

4. Failure to add proper antitorque pedal as collec tive is

added to cushion landing, resulting in a touchdown
while the helicopter is moving sideward.

5. Failure to maintain a speed that takes advantage of

effective translational lift.

6. Touching down at an excessive groundspeed for the

existing conditions. (Some helicopters have maximum
touchdown groundspeeds.)

7. Failure to touch down in the appropriate attitude

necessary for a safe landing. Appropriate attitude is
based on the type of helicopter and the landing gear
installed.

8. Failure to maintain proper rpm during and after

touchdown.

9. Maintaining poor alignment with direction of travel

during touchdown.

Slope Operations

Prior to conducting any slope operations, be thoroughly
familiar with the characteristics of dynamic rollover and
mast bumping, which are discussed in Chapter 11, Helicopter

10-8

Figure 10-6.

Slope landing.

Emergencies and Hazards. The approach to a slope is similar
to the approach to any other landing area. During slope
operations, make allowances for wind, barriers, and forced
landing sites in case of engine failure. Since the slope may
constitute an obstruction to wind passage, anticipate turbulence
and downdrafts.

Slope Landing

A pilot usually lands a helicopter across the slope rather than
with the slope. Landing with the helicopter facing down
the slope or downhill is not recommended because of the
possibility of striking the tail rotor on the surface.

Technique

Refer to

Figure 10-6

. At the termination of the approach, if

necessary, move the helicopter slowly toward the slope, being
careful not to turn the tail upslope. Position the helicopter
across the slope at a stabilized hover headed into the wind
over the intended landing spot (frame 1). Downward pressure
on the collective starts the helicopter descending. As the
upslope skid touches the ground, hesitate momentarily in a
level attitude, then apply slight lateral cyclic in the direction
of the slope (frame 2). This holds the skid against the slope
while the pilot continues lowering the downslope skid with
the col lective. As the collective is lowered, continue to move
the cyclic toward the slope to maintain a fixed position (frame
3) The slope must be shallow enough to hold the helicopter
against it with the cyclic during the entire landing. A slope of
5° is recommended maximum for training in most helicopters.
However, additional training to the manufacturer’s
limitations may be required. Consult the Rotorcraft Flight
Manual (RFM) or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH) for
the specific limitations of the helicopter being flown.

Be aware of any abnormal vibration or mast bumping that
signals maximum cyclic deflection. If helicopter mast
moment or slope limits are reached before the helicopter
is firmly on the ground, return the helicopter to a hover.
Select a new area with a lesser degree of slope. In most

helicopters with a counterclockwise rotor system, landings
can be made on steeper slopes when holding the cyclic to the
right. When landing on slopes using left cyclic, some cyclic
input must be used to overcome the translating tendency.
If wind is not a factor, consider the drifting tendency when
determining landing direction.

After the downslope skid is on the surface, reduce the
collective to full down, and neutralize the cyclic and pedals
(frame 4). Normal operating rpm should be maintained
until the full weight of the helicopter is on the landing gear.

This ensures adequate rpm for immediate takeoff in case the
helicopter starts sliding down the slope. Use antitorque pedals
as necessary throughout the landing for heading control.
Before reducing the rpm, move the cyclic control as neces sary
to check that the helicopter is firmly on the ground.

Common Errors

1. Failing to consider wind effects during the approach

and landing.

2. Failing to maintain proper rpm throughout the entire

maneuver.

3. Failure to maintain heading resulting in a turning or

pivoting motion.

4. Turning the tail of the helicopter into the

slope.

5. Lowering the downslope skid or wheel too rapidly.
6. Applying excessive cyclic control into the slope,

causing mast bumping.

Slope Takeoff

A slope takeoff is basically the reverse of a slope land ing.

[Figure 10-7]

Conditions that may be associated with the

slope, such as turbulence and obstacles, must be considered
during the takeoff. Planning should include suitable forced
landing areas.

10-9

Figure 10-7.

Slope takeoff.

Technique

Begin the takeoff by increasing rpm to the normal range with
the collective full down. Then, move the cyclic toward the
slope (frame 1). Holding the cyclic toward the direction of
the slope causes the downslope skid to rise as the pilot slowly
raises the collective (frame 2). As the skid comes up, move
the cyclic as necessary to maintain a level attitude in relation
to the horizon. If properly coordinated, the helicopter should
attain a level attitude as the cyclic reaches the neutral position.
At the same time, use antitorque pedal pressure to maintain
heading and throttle to maintain rpm. With the helicopter
level and the cyclic centered, pause momentarily to verify
everything is correct, and then gradually raise the collective
to complete the liftoff (frame 3). After reaching a hover,
avoid hitting the ground with the tail rotor by not turning the
helicopter tail upslope and gaining enough altitude to ensure
the tail rotor is clear. If an upslope wind exists, execute a
crosswind takeoff and then make a turn into the wind after
clearing the ground with the tail rotor.

Common Errors

1. Failing to adjust cyclic control to keep the heli copter

from sliding down slope.

2. Failing to maintain proper rpm.
3. Holding excessive cyclic into the slope as the down

slope skid is raised.

4. Failure to maintain heading, resulting in a turning or

pivoting motion.

5. Turning the tail of the helicopter into the slope during

takeoff.

Confined Area Operations

A confined area is an area where the flight of the heli copter
is limited in some direction by terrain or the presence of
obstructions, natural or manmade. For example, a clearing
in the woods, a city street, a road, a building roof, etc., can
each be regarded as a confined area. The helicopter pilot
has added responsibilities when conducting operations

from a confined area that airplanes pilots do not. He or she
assumes the additional roles of the surveyor, engineer, and
manager when selecting an area to conduct operations. While
airplane pilots generally operate from known pre-surveyed
and improved landing areas, helicopter pilots fly into areas
never used before for helicopter operations. Generally,
takeoffs and landings should be made into the wind to obtain
maximum airspeed with minimum groundspeed. The pilot
should begin with as nearly accurate an altimeter setting as
possible to determine the altitude.

There are several things to consider when operating in
confined areas. One of the most important is maintaining
a clearance between the rotors and obstacles forming the
confined area. The tail rotor deserves special considera tion
because, in some helicopters, it is not always visible from
the cabin. This not only applies while making the approach,
but also while hovering. Another consider ation is that wires
are especially difficult to see; however, their supporting
devices, such as poles or towers, serve as an indication of
their presence and approximate height. If any wind is present,
expect some turbulence.

[Figure 10-8]

Something else to consider is the availability of forced
landing areas during the planned approach. Think about
the possibility of flying from one alternate landing area to
another throughout the approach, while avoiding unfavorable
areas. Always leave a way out in case the landing cannot be
completed, or a go-around is necessary.

During the high reconnaissance, the pilot needs to formulate
a takeoff plan as well. The heights of obstacles need to be
determined. It is not good practice to land in an area and
then determine that insufficient power exists to depart.
Generally, more power is required to take off than to land
so the takeoff criteria is most crucial. Fixing the departure
azimuth or heading on the compass is a good technique to
use. This ensures that the pilot is able to take off over the
preselected departure path when it is not visible while sitting
in the confined area.

10-11

Figure 10-9.

When flying an approach to a pinnacle or ridgeline,

avoid the areas where downdrafts are present, especially when
excess power is limited. If downdrafts are encountered, it may
become necessary to make an immediate turn away from the
pinnacle to avoid being forced into the rising terrain.

4.  Failure to consider emergency landing areas.
5.  Failure to select a specific landing spot.
6.  Failure to consider how wind and turbulence could

affect the approach.

7. Improper takeoff and climb technique for exist ing

conditions.

8. Failure to maintain safe clearance distance from

obstructions.

Pinnacle and Ridgeline Operations

A pinnacle is an area from which the surface drops away
steeply on all sides. A ridgeline is a long area from which
the surface drops away steeply on one or two sides, such
as a bluff or precipice. The absence of obstacles does not
necessarily decrease the difficulty of pinnacle or ridgeline
operations. Updrafts, downdrafts, and turbulence, together
with unsuitable terrain in which to make a forced landing,
may still present extreme hazards.

Approach and Landing

If there is a need to climb to a pinnacle or ridgeline, do it on
the upwind side, when practicable, to take advantage of any
updrafts. The approach flightpath should be paral lel to the
ridgeline and into the wind as much as possi ble.

[Figure 10-9]

Load, altitude, wind conditions, and terrain features
determine the angle to use in the final part of an approach.
As a general rule, the greater the winds are, the steeper the
approach needs to be to avoid turbulent air and downdrafts.

Groundspeed during a pinnacle approach is more difficult to
judge because visual references are farther away than during
approaches over trees or flat terrain. Pilots must continually
perceive the apparent rate of closure by observing the apparent
change in size of the landing zone features. Avoid the
misperception of an increasing rate of closure to the landing
site. The apparent rate of closure should be that of a brisk
walk. If a crosswind exists, remain clear of down-drafts on
the leeward or downwind side of the ridgeline. If the wind
velocity makes the crosswind landing hazardous, it may be
possible to make a low, coordinated turn into the wind just
prior to terminating the approach. When making an approach
to a pinnacle, avoid leeward turbulence and keep the helicopter
within reach of a forced landing area as long as possible.

On landing, take advantage of the long axis of the area when
wind conditions permit. Touchdown should be made in the
forward portion of the area. When approaching to land on
pinnacles, especially manmade areas such as rooftop pads,
the pilot should determine the personnel access pathway to
the helipad and ensure that the tail rotor is not allowed to
intrude into that walkway or zone. Parking or landing with the
tail rotor off the platform ensures personnel safety. Always
per form a stability check prior to reducing rpm to ensure
the landing gear is on firm terrain that can safely support
the weight of the helicopter. Accomplish this by slowly
moving the cyclic and pedals while lowering the collective.
If movement is detected, reposition the aircraft.

Takeoff

A pinnacle takeoff is considered an airspeed over altitude
maneuver which can be made from the ground or from a
hover. Since pinnacles and ridgelines are generally higher
than the immediate surrounding terrain, gaining airspeed
on the takeoff is more important than gaining altitude. As
airspeed increases, the departure from the pinnacle becomes
more rapid, and helicopter time in the

avoid

area of the

height/velocity area decreases.

[Figure 11-3]

In addition

to covering unfavor able terrain rapidly, a higher airspeed
affords a more favorable glide angle and thus contributes to
the chances of reaching a safe area in the event of a forced
landing. If a suitable forced landing area is not avail able, a
higher airspeed also permits a more effective flare prior to
making an autorotative landing.

On takeoff, as the helicopter moves out of ground effect,
maintain altitude and accelerate to normal climb airspeed.
When normal climb speed is attained, estab lish a normal
climb attitude. Never dive the helicopter down the slope after
clearing the pinnacle.

11-2

Normal Powered Flight

Autorotation

Direction of flight

Figure 11-1.

During an autorotation, the upward flow of relative wind permits the main rotor blades to rotate at their normal speed. In

effect, the blades are “gliding” in their rotational plane.

Several factors affect the rate of descent in autorotation:
bank angle, density altitude, gross weight, rotor rpm, trim
condition, and airspeed. The primary ways to control the rate
of descent are with airspeed and rotor rpm. Higher or lower
airspeed is obtained with the cyclic pitch control just as in
normal powered flight. In theory, a pilot has a choice in the
angle of descent, varying, from straight vertical to maximum
horizontal range (which is the minimum angle of descent).
Rate of descent is high at zero airspeed and decreases to a
minimum at approximately 50–60 knots, depending upon the
particular helicopter and the factors just mentioned. As the
airspeed increases beyond that which gives minimum rate
of descent, the rate of descent increases again.

When landing from an autorotation, the only energy available
to arrest the descent rate and ensure a soft landing is the
kinetic energy stored in the rotor blades. Tip weights can
greatly increase this stored energy. A greater amount of
rotor energy is required to stop a helicopter with a high
rate of descent than is required to stop a helicopter that is
descending more slowly. Therefore, autorotative descents
at very low or very high airspeeds are more critical than
those performed at the minimum rate of descent airspeed.
Refer to the height/velocity diagram discussion in Chapter
7, Helicopter Performance.

Each type of helicopter has a specific airspeed and rotor rpm
at which a power-off glide is most efficient. The specific
airspeed is somewhat different for each type of helicopter,
but certain factors affect all configurations in the same
manner. In general, rotor rpm maintained in the low green
area (see

Figure 5-3

) gives more distance in an autorotation.

Heavier helicopter weights may require more collective to
control rotor rpm. Some helicopters need slight adjustments
to minimum rotor rpm settings for winter versus summer

Autorotation

In a helicopter, an autorotative descent is a power-off
maneuver in which the engine is disengaged from the
main rotor disk and the rotor blades are driven solely by
the upward flow of air through the rotor.

[Figure 11-1]

other words, the engine is no longer supplying power to
the main rotor.

The most common reason for an autorotation is failure of the
engine or drive line, but autorotation may also be performed
in the event of a complete tail rotor failure, since there is
virtually no torque produced in an autorotation. In both
cases, maintenance has often been a contributing factor to the
failure. Engine failures are also caused by fuel contamination
or exhaustion as well resulting in a forced autorotation.

If the engine fails, the freewheeling unit automatically
disengages the engine from the main rotor, allowing it to
rotate freely. Essentially, the freewheeling unit disengages
anytime the engine revolutions per minute (rpm) is less than
the rotor rpm.

At the instant of engine failure, the main rotor blades are
producing lift and thrust from their angle of attack (AOA)
and velocity. By lowering the collective (which must be done
immediately in case of an engine failure), lift and drag are
reduced, and the helicopter begins an immediate descent,
thus producing an upward flow of air through the rotor disk.
This upward flow of air through the rotor disk provides
sufficient thrust to maintain rotor rpm throughout the descent.
Since the tail rotor is driven by the main rotor transmission
during autorotation, heading control is maintained with the
antitorque pedals as in normal flight.

11-3

conditions, and high altitude versus sea level flights. For
specific autorotation airspeed and rotor rpm combinations for
a particular helicopter, refer to the Rotorcraft Flight Manual
(RFM). The specific airspeed and rotor rpm for autorotation
is established for each type of helicopter based on average
weather, calm wind conditions, and normal loading. When
the helicopter is operated with heavy loads in high density
altitude or gusty wind conditions, best performance is
achieved from a slightly increased airspeed in the descent.
For autorotation at low density altitude and light loading,
best performance is achieved from a slight decrease in
normal airspeed. Following this general procedure of fitting
airspeed and rotor rpm to existing conditions, a pilot can
achieve approximately the same glide angle in any set of
circumstances, and thereby estimate the touchdown point
accurately.

It is important that pilots experience autorotations from
various airspeeds. This provides better understanding of
the necessary flight control inputs to achieve the desired
airspeed, rotor rpm and autorotation performance, such
as the maximum glide or minimum descent airspeed. The
decision to use the appropriate airspeed and rotor rpm for
the given conditions should be instinctive to reach a suitable
landing area. The helicopter glide ratio is much less than
that of a fixed-wing aircraft and takes some getting used to.
The flare to land at 80 knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) will
be significantly greater than that from 55 KIAS. Rotor rpm
control is critical at these points to ensure adequate rotor
energy for cushioning the landing.

Use collective pitch control to manage rotor rpm. If rotor rpm
builds too high during an autorotation, raise the collective
sufficiently to decrease rpm back to the normal operating
range, then reduce the collective to maintain proper rotor rpm.
If the collective increase is held too long, the rotor rpm may
decay rapidly. The pilot would have to lower the collective
in order to regain rotor rpm. If the rpm begins decreasing,
the pilot must again lower the collective. Always keep the
rotor rpm within the established recommended range for the
helicopter being flown.

RPM Control

Rotor rpm in low inertia rotor systems has been studied
in simulator flight evaluations which indicate that the
simultaneous application of aft cyclic, down collective,
and alignment with the relative wind (trim) at a wide range
of airspeeds, including cruise airspeeds, is critical for all
operations during the entry of an autorotation. The applicable
Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM) should be consulted to
determine the appropriate procedure(s) for safely entering an
autorotation. This is vitally important since the procedure(s)
for safely entering an autorotation may vary with specific
makes and/or models of helicopters. A basic discussion of

the aerodynamics and control inputs for single rotor systems
is in order here.

Helicopter pilots must understand the use of the collective
for rotor rpm control during power off autorotations in a turn.
Upward movement of the collective reduces the rpm and
downward movement increases the rpm. Cyclic movement
is primarily associated with attitude/airspeed control in
powered flight but may not be given the credit appropriate
for rotor rpm control during practice and emergency power
off autorotations. As long as the line of cyclic movement is
parallel with the flight path of the helicopter (trimmed), the
aft movement of the cyclic also creates greater air flow up
through the bottom of the rotor disk and contributes to an
increase in rotor rpm. If the flight path is 10 degrees to the
right of the longitudinal axis of the helicopter, theoretically,
the cyclic should be moved 10 degrees aft and left of the
longitudinal axis to get maximum air up through the rotor
system.

As the pilot lowers the collective in reaction to a loss of
power during cruise flight there may be a tendency for the
nose of the helicopter to pitch down. As a result, the pilot may
tend to lean forward slightly, which delays the application
of simultaneous aft cyclic to prevent the pitch change and
associated loss of rotor rpm. A slight gain in altitude at cruise
airspeed during the power off entry into an autorotation
should not be of great concern as is the case for the execution
of practice or actual quick stops.

Various accident investigations have concluded that, when
faced with a real power failure at cruise airspeed, pilots are
not simultaneously applying down collective, aft cyclic, and
antitorque pedal inputs in a timely manner. Low inertia rotor
systems store less kinetic energy during autorotation and, as
a result, rotor rpm decays rapidly during deceleration and
touchdown. Conversely, less energy is required to regain
safe rotor rpm during autorotation entry and autorotative
descent. The pilot should immediately apply simultaneous
down collective, aft cyclic and trim the helicopter for entry
into an autorotation initiated at cruise airspeed. If rotor rpm
has been allowed to decrease, or has inadvertently decreased
below acceptable limits, an application of aft cyclic may
help rebuild rotor rpm. This application of aft cyclic must
be made at least at a moderate rate and may be combined
with a turn, either left or right, to increase airflow through
the rotor system. This will work to increase rotor rpm. Care
should be maintained to not over-speed the rotor system as
this is attempted.

Risk Management during Autorotation Training

The following sections describe enhanced guidelines for
autorotations during rotorcraft/helicopter flight training,
as stated in Advisory Circular (AC) 61-140. There are

Helicopter Flying Handbook (2019) - page 4