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Military reference books and manuals (2009-2023, Volume 7) - page 6

Chapter 1

TYPE LINE

1-13. Type lines are the two innermost ridges that start parallel, diverge, and surround

(or tend to

surround) the pattern area. They are used to locate the delta. Type lines are not always continuous ridges.

In fact, they are more often found to be broken. When there is a definite break in a type line, the ridge

immediately outside of it is considered to be its continuation.

1-14. According to the narrow meaning of the words in fingerprint terminology, a single ridge may

bifurcate, but it may not diverge. Therefore, with one exception, the two forks of a bifurcation may never

constitute type lines. The exception is when the forks run parallel after bifurcating and then diverge. In

such a case, the two forks become the two innermost ridge lines required by the definition. In Figure 1-3,

the ridges marked T-T are the type lines; the ridges marked A-A are not the type lines because the forks of

the bifurcation do not run parallel to each other.

1-15. Angles are never formed by a single ridge but by the abutting of one ridge against another.

Therefore, an angular formation cannot be used as a type line. In Figure 1-4, ridges A and B join at an

angle, ridge B does not run parallel with ridge D, and ridge A does not diverge. Therefore, ridges C and D

are the type lines.

Figure 1-3. Type lines - example 1

Figure 1-4. Type lines - example 2

1-16. The pattern area is the part of a fingerprint impression within the type lines. This area is the only part

of the impression used in SF fingerprint interpretation and classification. It is present in all patterns. In

arches and tented arches, it is enough of the print to be able to classify the impression. Arches do not have

clearly defined pattern areas. In the pattern areas of loops and whorls, the cores and deltas appear.

CORE

1-17. The core is the innermost recurving ridge line of a fingerprint impression. It will normally be located

approximately in the center of the pattern.

DELTA

1-18. The delta is the first print characteristic located in front of and nearest to the divergence of the type

lines. This point may be represented by any print characteristic such as a fork, a ridge ending, a ridge

segment, or a curving ridge (Figure 1-5, page 1-5).

1-19. In the examples provided in Figure 1-5, C is the core, D is the delta, and T marks the type lines.

Soldiers must ensure they are looking at the ridge lines and not the printing surface. Normally, the ridge

lines will be darker than the printing surface, as they are in this TC.

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Fingerprinting

Figure 1-5. Core, delta, and type lines

PATTERNS

1-20. In the FIS, there are three main fingerprint patterns: arches, loops, and whorls. Arches are further

divided into arches and tented arches. Loops are further subdivided into finger loops and thumb loops.

ARCH

1-21. In an arch, the ridges enter one side of the impression and tend to flow out the other side with a

gentle rise in the middle. There may be various ridge formations in the pattern. Arches do not have a core.

All ridges flow (or tend to flow) with a slight rise in the center from one side of the pattern to the other

without any ridges recurving to the side they entered. An arch is an easily identifiable print providing the

individual reading the print does not get confused between ridges that have bifurcations and an innermost

recurving ridge. The best way to determine the difference is by looking closely at the place where the ridge

starts what appears to be a recurve. When the ridges have sharp angles, they are either bifurcations or two

ridges running into each other; they are not a recurving ridge line. Figure 1-6, page 1-6, shows examples of

arch patterns.

1-22. In the tented arch, most of the ridges enter from one side of the impression and flow (or tend to flow)

out the other side, as in the arch. The key difference, however, is that the ridge or ridges at the center of the

impression have a definite upthrust, which can be compared to the center pole of a tent and from which this

pattern derives its name. There are no recurving ridges in a tented arch. Figure 1-7, page 1-6, shows

examples of tented arches.

Note: Arches and tented arches constitute about 5 percent of fingerprint patterns.

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Chapter 1

Figure 1-6. Arch

Figure 1-7. Tented arch

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LOOP

1-23. A loop is the type of pattern found on fingerprint impressions in which one or more of the ridges

enter the impression from either side, flow toward the center of the impression, recurve upon themselves,

and tend to exit on the same side of the impression from which they entered. Loops are the most common

type of fingerprint patterns, accounting for approximately

65 percent. Loops are divided into two

categories: finger loops and thumb loops. The type of loop is not determined by the digit where it appears.

Rather, the rule for determining whether a loop print is a finger loop or thumb loop is determined by the

direction of the open ends of the loop in direct relationship to the finger or thumb on which the print

appears. With a finger loop, the ridges enter the print from the side of impression toward the little finger,

form a loop, and depart the impression from the same side. With a thumb loop, the ridges enter the print

from the side of the impression toward the thumb, form a loop, and depart the impression on the same side.

Loops have only one core and one delta. Figure 1-8 shows examples of loops.

Note: If patterns 1 and 3 in Figure 1-8 were on the left hand, they would be finger loops; if they

were on the right hand, they would be thumb loops. The reverse is true of patterns in patterns 2

and 4 in Figure 1-8.

Figure 1-8. Loops

WHORL

1-24. A whorl, for the purposes of this TC, is any print that is not an arch, tented arch, finger loop, or

thumb loop. Whorls are fairly common—approximately 30 percent of fingerprint patterns are whorls.

Whorls always have two or more deltas and may have more than one core. In some prints, the delta may be

located on the extreme edge of the impression and is not revealed unless the finger is fully rolled from nail

edge to nail edge. In cases where this procedure is not done, an incorrect interpretation of the print may be

made. Figure 1-9, page 1-8, shows typical whorl patterns.

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Chapter 1

Note: All impressions in Figure 1-9 have two deltas. Patterns 1 and 2 have only one core,

whereas patterns 3 and 4 have two cores.

Figure 1-9. Whorls

1-25. No matter how definite fingerprint rules and pattern definitions are made, there will always be some

patterns causing doubt as to their classification. The primary reason for this doubt is that no two

fingerprints will ever appear that are exactly alike. Other reasons are differences in the degree of judgment

and interpretation of the individual analyzing the fingerprints. The correct interpretation of patterns that are

questionable because of their resemblance to more than one pattern type is determined by the analyst’s

proficiency in determining focal points, cores, and deltas. The more skilled the analyst is in reading the

prints, the fewer questionable patterns are encountered. For positive identification, there is no allowable

error for the type of print. The print may be questionable and stated as such in the FIS message. In

questionable prints, the procedures described below help to identify the individual.

RIDGE COUNT

1-26. A fingerprint ridge count is the number of ridges that occur between the core and the delta. To obtain

the ridge count, a line is drawn from the point of nearest tangency on the core through the delta. The

Soldier may use a ready-made line scribed on a piece of glass or any transparent material. This line may be

shifted around until proper alignment has been achieved. Figure 1-10, page 1-9, shows the placement of the

reference line on some typical patterns. There are four rules to be followed in the ridge count:

z

A ridge count must be reported on all fingers.

z

A ridge count is conducted only on loops and whorls.

z

Every line that crosses or touches the reference line is counted.

z

The count starts on the core, which receives the number one and ends at the delta, which

receives the last number.

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Fingerprinting

Figure 1-10. Placement of the reference line

1-27. Inasmuch as arches and tented arches have no core, a ridge count cannot be done on them because

there is no way to orient the reference line. When these patterns occur, they are assigned a ridge count of

zero. Missing fingers are also assigned a ridge count of zero. When a scar or mutilation between the core

and the delta makes a ridge count impossible, a ridge count of zero is assigned to the finger.

1-28. With the reference line properly oriented on the print, the ridge count is made by counting all of the

ridge lines that cross or touch the reference line, starting with the core as the first ridge counted and ending

with the delta as the last ridge counted. Figure 1-11 below and Figure 1-12, page 1-10, illustrate this

technique on a loop and whorl, respectively.

1-29. In Figure 1-11, lines 8 and 9 and 14 and 15 received a double count because the reference line

crosses at the point where a ridge bifurcates. In keeping with the third rule described in paragraph 1-18,

each of the lines formed by the bifurcation receives a count since they touch the reference line. Lines 5, 6,

10, and 11 of Figure 1-11 and ridge lines 8 and 9 of Figure 1-12 are formed by a ridge line bifurcating on

one side of the reference line and reclosing on the other side of the reference line. However, at the point

where they encounter the reference line there are two distinct ridges, and each receives a count.

Figure 1-11. Ridge count (loop)

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Figure 1-12. Ridge count (whorl)

1-30. Because whorl patterns have more than one delta, the FIS dictates which delta is to be used. The

leftmost delta and the core nearest it will be used unless a crease or mutilation on that side would prevent

an accurate count. In such instances, the count is made between the rightmost delta and the core nearest to

it (this fact must be reported in the message transmitting the data). Figure 1-13 shows the placement of the

reference line on typical patterns.

Figure 1-13. Loop pattern, (normal), whorl pattern (normal), and whorl pattern (mutilated)

1-31. Normally, the lowest ridge count would be two—one for the core and one for the delta. However,

rare patterns may be encountered where the core and the delta are the same (Figure 1-14, page 1-11). In

such instances, the ridge count is one.

1-32. A small, two-power magnifier is necessary for ease and accuracy of print interpretation (although, in

emergencies, it is possible to read a perfectly clear print without magnification). The magnifier should be

mounted on some type of stand that allows the analyst to have both hands free to make a ridge count. Field

experience has shown that two individuals counting the ridges on the same print may make an error of two

counts; therefore, an error of plus or minus two is allowable in the ridge count comparison.

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Fingerprinting

Figure 1-14. Example of rare pattern where core and delta are the same

1-33. In the following practical exercise, Figure 1-15, pages 1-11 and 1-12, represents the 10 fingerprint

impressions of an individual. The analyst classifies the pattern and conducts a ridge count on these

impressions. The analyst must remember that there is no allowable error in pattern classification, but an

error of plus or minus two counts is allowable in the ridge count.

Finger 1

Finger 2

Finger 3

Finger 4

Finger 5

Finger 6

Figure 1-15. Fingerprint impressions

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Chapter 1

Finger 7

Finger 8

Finger 9

Finger 10

Figure 1-15. Fingerprint impressions (continued)

FAULT COUNT

1-34. Faults are peculiar formations occurring on ridges within the pattern area. They tend to interrupt the

continuity of impressions and are the distinguishing features of fingerprints. Faults appear in five forms, as

depicted in Figure 1-16. The five forms are—

z

Islands (ridges that bifurcate and then reclose, forming an island).

z

Forks (single ridges that split [bifurcate] into two ridges).

z

Segments (short fragments of ridges standing alone).

z

Ends (ridges that end abruptly).

z

Breaks (separation or interruption of a ridge on the same plane).

Figure 1-16. Types of faults

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1-35. Faults appear frequently and haphazardly throughout the pattern areas of fingerprints. Their use as

authenticating data for the FIS requires an accurate method for recording the description of the faults and

their location in the pattern area. A template is used in the fault count to provide a means of orienting the

critical faults. The template is a transparent medium upon which reference lines are inscribed. The

reference lines are three parallel lines drawn 2 millimeters (mm) apart and closed at one end by a line

drawn perpendicular to the parallel lines (Figure 1-17). The overall length of the parallel lines only needs

to be as long as is required to reach from the core of an impression to its delta.

Figure 1-17. Template

1-36. The proper position of the template on loop and whorl patterns is with the center line tangent to the

core and through the delta in the same manner that the reference line is placed for the ridge count. The

perpendicular line of the template is placed so that it intersects the core at the point of tangency of the

center line (Figure 1-18).

Figure 1-18. Template positioning on loop, whorl, and loop

1-37. With the template correctly positioned, the only faults to be considered for the fault count are those

which appear within the 4-mm area bounded by the right and left parallel lines, below the cross line

intersecting the core, and above the delta. The Soldier does not count the faults that occur—

z

Outside the limits.

z

On the core.

z

On the delta.

Note: When a fault is partly inside and partly outside the limits of the template, its description

will be limited to only that part of the fault which is inside the limits of the template.

1-38. The numbering of faults is governed by the ridge count. Faults appearing on ridges that cross or

touch the center line of the template receive the same number as the ridge on which they occur. When more

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Fingerprinting

Figure 1-19. Sample fault count

2FLL

Indicates a fork on the second ridge line, in the left column of the template, opening to the left.

(Fork Left-Left)

3ELL

Indicates an end on the third ridge line, in the left column of the template, pointing to the left.

(End Left-Left)

Because this fault appears on a ridge line that does not cross or touch the center line, it

receives the number of the ridge line immediately above it.

3FLR

Indicates a fork on the third ridge line, in the right column, opening to the right. Note that double

(Fork Left-Right)

line faults, such as forks and islands, are given the number of the first of its ridges that cross or

touch the center line.

Ridge line 4 contains no faults and is not reported.

5FRL

Indicates a fork on the fifth ridge line, in the right column, opening to the left.

(Fork Right-Left)

6BL

Indicates a break on the sixth ridge line in the left column. A break does not have direction

(Break Left)

unless it is located on the center line. Although this ridge is part of the fork on ridge line five, it

also touches the center line and therefore is reported separately.

Figure 1-20. Detailed fault count description

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Chapter 1

z

Identify the bottom lockpoint by counting the ridges that cross or touch the center line starting at

the line of cleavage and proceeding upward through the impression. Give the fault that ridge

number and identify it both as it appears within the template and as a lockpoint. For example, in

Figure 1-21, 5ECLLP is an end center-left, on the fifth ridge line up from the line of cleavage,

and is the lockpoint.

z

Continue a normal fault count, counting upwards to the top lockpoint, which is the last fault

described. The rules of fault count for loops and whorls apply, with the exception that the count

is upwards in the lockpoint method.

z

Identify the top lockpoint in the same manner as the bottom lockpoint. In Figure 1-21, 33ICLP

is an island center on the 33rd ridge up from the line of cleavage and the lockpoint.

Note: All double-line faults receive the count of their lower ridge. This method is in keeping

with the rule that all double-line faults receive the count of the first line that touches the

reference line. The faults appearing on ridge lines that do not cross or touch the center line still

receive the count of the line above. In the lockpoint method, this count will always be the larger

number, whereas in the fault count of loops and whorls, this count will be the lower number.

Figure 1-21. Lockpoint

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Chapter 2

2-4. Figure 2-1 is an example of a typical commercially available fingerprint identification kit. The

minimum contents of this kit should include the following:

z

Carrying case.

z

Index cards (5 by 8 inches).

z

Fingerprint ink.

z

Roller (used with fingerprint ink).

z

Inking plate (used with fingerprint ink).

z

Card holder.

z

Magnifier.

z

Reading glass (used as magnifier).

z

Template.

z

Curved spatula (used for deformed fingers).

Figure 2-1. Typical commercially available fingerprint identification kit

2-5. There is a wide variety of equipment available for taking fingerprints. Figure 2-2, page 2-3, is an

example of a commercially available compact fingerprint identification station. Figure 2-3, page 2-3, is an

example of a commercially available inkless fingerprint kit. Figure 2-4, pages 2-3 and 2-4, shows examples

of field-expedient inking materials, to include shoe polish, camouflage stick, lipstick, stamp pad, and

camouflage compact. Figure 2-5, page 2-4, is an example of a field-expedient fingerprint card with

handwritten information blocks. Figure 2-6, page 2-5, shows commercially available magnifiers. Figure 2-7,

page 2-6, shows examples of biometric AFIS equipment available through the BFC representative or the

operational group headquarters (HQ).

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Figure 2-2. Commercially available compact fingerprint identification station

Figure 2-3. Commercially available inkless fingerprint kit

Figure 2-4. Examples of field-expedient inking material

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Figure 2-4. Examples of field-expedient inking material (continued)

Figure 2-5. Example of field-expedient fingerprint card

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Figure 2-6. Examples of commercially available magnifiers

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Chapter 2

Figure 2-7. Examples of biometric equipment

TECHNIQUES

2-6. To get the best possible results, the Soldier should apply a number of techniques. These techniques

include the following:

z

Ensure that all the necessary equipment is available, clean, and in working order.

z

Select a location that provides a degree of privacy and a sufficient source of light.

z

Organize the printing area, arrange the working surface, and ink the printing plate.

2-7. The working surface should be arranged so that the subject being fingerprinted stands in front of and

at forearm’s length from the surface. The height of the working surface should be even with the subject’s

elbow when his arm is hanging naturally to his side (when the arm is bent to a right angle, the forearm will

be even with the surface). The card and inking plate should be mounted at the edge of the surface so that

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Taking a Set of Fingerprints

the subject’s fingers will not interfere with the manipulation of the other fingers during the printing

process.

2-8. To ink the printing plate properly, the Soldier should place two or three small daubs (about the size

of a match head) of printer’s ink on the plate and thoroughly roll until a thin, even film covers the entire

surface. The inked plate should be checked to ensure the film is neither too heavy (smudged prints) nor too

light (undefined prints).

2-9. Prior to inking the fingertips, the Soldier should ensure that the subject’s fingers are clean. Lint, dust,

dirt, or gummed ink in the pattern area can cause imperfect impressions, void identifying characteristics, or

print false markings. Alcohol, gasoline, or soap and water are suitable for cleaning. If the skin is rough or

callused and difficult to print, the hands should be washed and, if necessary, soaked in warm water.

Soaking softens the skin and brings out the ridges. After soaking, the hands should be dried thoroughly—

moisture on the hands will blur the prints.

2-10. For proper and accurate analysis, the Soldier must ensure that all critical areas of the fingerprints are

imprinted. The fingers must be inked properly and rolled (rather than pressed) to obtain the impressions. In

taking rolled impressions, the bulb of the finger is placed at right angles to the surface and then turned or

rolled until the bulb faces in the opposite direction. To obtain uniform impressions, the Soldier may take

advantage of the natural finger movement—the fingers are turned away from the awkward to the easy

position. Such movement relieves strain and leaves the fingers relaxed so that they may be lifted easily

from the surface without slipping. Slipping causes the prints to smudge and blur.

2-11. If an individual holds his arms in front of him with the backs of his hands touching each other, his

hands feel strained and awkward. If he turns his hands over so they are palm to palm, they are in a

comfortable position. When taking fingerprints, the Soldier should roll the fingers by starting in the

awkward position (Figure 2-8) and ending with them in the comfortable position (that is, rolled away from

the center of the subject’s body).

Figure 2-8. Completing the roll of the finger from “awkward-to-comfortable” position

2-12. If an individual holds both hands in front of him with palms up and thumbs extended, the inside

edges of the thumbs will be down and the person will feel strain. If he holds both hands in front of him

with the palms down, the outside edges of the thumbs will be down and he will be comfortable. Therefore,

in rolling the thumbs, the Soldier should roll the thumb toward the center of the subject’s body (Figure 2-9,

page 2-8).

2-13. When taking fingerprints, each finger must be inked evenly from the tip to below the first joint and

from nail edge to nail edge. Each finger should be inked and printed separately, not all at once. In inking

and taking rolled impressions, the amount of pressure used is important; proper pressure can best be

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Chapter 2

determined through experience and observation. It is quite important, however, that the subject relaxes,

refrain from helping, and not exert any pressure that will prevent the Soldier from gauging the amount of

pressure needed. One way to get the subject to relax his hand is to have him look at the opposite wall

instead of his hands. It also helps if the Soldier can stand between the subject and the working surface.

Figure 2-9. Completing the roll of the right thumb

2-14. Figure 2-10 shows fingerprints taken with biometric AFIS equipment. Figure 2-11, page 2-9, shows

the thumbprint being taken using this equipment. When using biometric equipment, it is not necessary to

roll the finger to obtain a print (Figure 2-12, page 2-9).

Figure 2-10. Fingerprints taken with biometric equipment

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Figure 2-11. Thumbprint taken with biometric equipment

Figure 2-12. Fingerprint taken with biometric equipment

2-15. The procedure for inking the fingers is the same as that described for taking the prints. A finger

should not be rolled back and forth on the inking plate to get enough ink. If insufficient ink is transferred

the first time, the finger should be re-inked on another portion of the inking plate. A finger should never be

inked at a place on the inking plate where a finger was previously inked. This practice will result in uneven

inking, causing missed or voided characteristics.

2-16. A slightly different procedure is used when applying lipstick to the fingers to take a set of

impressions. The lipstick should be applied directly to the fingers. To coat the fingers uniformly, lipstick

should be applied in one sweeping motion beginning below the first joint and ending at the tip of the

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Chapter 2

finger. Since more than one motion is normally needed to cover a fingerprint, a slight overlap should be

allowed in each subsequent application. Soldiers should avoid using back-and-forth motions, as this type of

motion will fill in the furrows between the ridges, causing smudged and blurred impressions.

STANDARD NUMBERING OF THE FINGERS

2-17. The standard method of numbering the fingers in the FIS permits the data to be transmitted in a

message without numbering the data for each finger. This procedure only requires that the data be

transmitted in proper order—the data for the first finger appearing first in the message, followed by the

data for the second finger, and so on. This procedure also ensures that individuals at various locations will

derive the same information from received messages dealing with fingerprint identification.

2-18. The FIS is devised for 10 fingers. In the FIS, the fingers are always numbered, palms down, starting

with the little finger of the left hand as finger number 1 and proceeding across the back of the hands. Each

finger is numbered in order until the little finger of the right hand is numbered (Figure 2-13). Therefore, in

the standard method of numbering, the fingers of the left hand will always be numbered 1 through 5 and

the fingers of the right hand will always be numbered 6 through 10.

2-19. When a finger or fingers are missing, the numbers stay as if all fingers were present. For example, if

the ring finger of the left hand is missing, the little finger on the left hand is still number 1, the missing

finger is number 2, the middle finger on the left hand is still number 3, and so forth (Figure 2-14, page 2-11).

The same would be true if the left hand were missing. The missing fingers of the left hand would still be

numbers 1 through 5, and right hand fingers would still be numbers 6 through 10 beginning with the thumb

and ending with the little finger. The missing fingers would be reported in the fingerprint message.

Figure 2-13. Standard numbering of the fingers

2-20. An individual with 11 or more fingers presents a special situation. The first consideration for any

additional finger is that it must have an identifiable fingerprint. It will then be given the number in the

sequence where it appears, using the rule counting from left to right, palms down (Figure 2-15, page 2-11).

If the additional finger does not have an identifiable fingerprint, it is not included in the finger count. All

additional fingers, regardless of the presence of an identifiable fingerprint, should be reported in the FIS

message.

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Figure 2-14. Finger numbering when finger is missing

2-21. Cuts, scratches, blisters, and wounds fall in the category of temporary disabilities. Given time, these

problems will cure themselves. If the time is not readily available, the Soldier must be patient and use

extreme care to obtain the best possible impression in spite of the disabilities.

2-22. Some of the physical disabilities encountered in taking fingerprint impressions are permanent. The

system provides for some of these permanent disabilities, such as missing or extra fingers. Other permanent

disabilities, such as deformed or mutilated fingers, may require the use of special equipment (such as the

curved spatula) or techniques. In addition, Soldiers must use extra care to obtain the best possible

impressions.

Figure 2-15. Finger numbering when an extra digit is present

2-23. The final category—general—deals primarily with errors made in the interpretation of the

impressions and the transmission of fingerprint data. Misinterpretation of impressions, misuse of the

brevity code, incomplete data, or transmission of data in the wrong sequence are examples of these errors.

Attention to detail will eliminate most of these problems. Figure 2-16, pages 2-12 and 2-13, shows a

sample of Standard Form (SF) 87A (Fingerprint Chart), also known as a FIS record card.

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Chapter 2

Figure 2-16. Sample of SF 87A (Fingerprint Chart)

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Operational Threats of the Civil Disturbance Environment

even inciting newcomers to join their cause. The first phase of the gathering is

the assembly process. It can occur in one of two ways—impromptu or

organized.

assembly

process

dispersal

gathering

process

Figure 1-1. Crowd Building

IMPROMPTU GATHERINGS

1-10. Impromptu gatherings usually develop informally and are mostly done

by word of mouth (one person to another or one group to another).

Participants spread intelligence by telling one another when, where, and what

is happening and inviting them to participate. An example of an impromptu

gathering would be a gathering at a secured food distribution point after

receiving information (by word of mouth) that a large truck carrying

much-needed supplies and food is about to arrive. In this case, hunger would

be the driving force causing the migration of people to the food distribution

facility.

ORGANIZED GATHERINGS

1-11. Like an impromptu gathering, an organized gathering can also involve

individuals and groups passing on information to one another. Passing

intelligence of police activity and occurrences and on when and where events

will take place helps organizers to prestage participants. Rarely is one

represented group responsible for pulling together a gathering. Organized

gatherings rely heavily on established groups that attract people to gather.

Recent examples of these well-organized groups are anarchists, anti-

globalization groups, and anti-free-enterprise groups. Groups representing

extreme religious faiths and ethnic organizations have been common too.

Some gatherings involve groups from rival, or even warring, factions.

1-12. Organized gathering processes rely more on centralized planning and

organization. One or more of the groups offer organizers lists of individual

names and groups, which they contact as potential participants. Modern

technologies are available to these organizers through telephone banks,

mailing lists, or e-mail addresses. In preparation for a long-term event, some

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