Military reference books and manuals (2009-2023, Volume 3)

Domestic Operational Law Handbook 2011

CHAPTER 13

FUNDING DOMESTIC SUPPORT OPERATIONS

KEY REFERENCES:

•

18 U.S.C. § 1385 - Posse Comitatus Act.

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10 U.S.C. §§ 371-382 - Military Support For Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies.

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10 U.S.C. §§ 331-334 - Insurrection Act.

•

10 U.S.C. § 2012 - Innovative Readiness Training.

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10 U.S.C. § 2551 - Equipment and other services: National Veterans’ Organizations.

•

10 U.S.C. § 2552 - Equipment and other services: American Red Cross.

•

10 U.S.C. § 2554 - Equipment and other services: Boy Scout Jamborees.

•

10 U.S.C. § 2555 - Equipment and services: Girl Scouts of America.

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10 U.S.C. § 2556 - Equipment and services: Homeless.

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10 U.S.C. § 2558 - Equipment and services: National Military Associations.

•

10 U.S.C. § 2562 - Prohibition on Transfer of construction of firefighting equipment in FMS.

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10 U.S.C. § 2564 - Provision of Support for Certain Sporting Events.

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10 U.S.C. § 2576 - Sale or Donation of Military Equipment.

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10 U.S.C. § 2667 - Lease of DoD Property.

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31 U.S.C. § 1535 - Economy Act.

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31 U.S.C. § 3302 - Miscellaneous Receipts.

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32 U.S.C. § 112 - Drug Interdiction and Counter-Drug Activities.

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42 U.S.C. § 5121, et seq., as amended - Stafford Act.

•

50 U.S.C. § 2311 - Response to Threats of Terrorist Use of Weapons of Mass Destruction

•

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1991, Pub. L. No. 101-510, § 1004 (as

amended, Additional Support for Counter-Drug Activities).

•

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1994, Pub. L. No. 103-139, § 8131

(Emergency Response Fund, Defense).

•

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-208, § 5802 (Support

to International Sporting Competitions - Defense).

•

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1997, Pub. L. No. 104-201, § 1031, (as

amended, Authority to Provide Additional Support for Counter-Drug Activities of Mexico).

•

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1998, Pub. L. No. 105-85, § 1033

(Authority to provide Additional Support for Counter-Drug Activities of Peru and Colombia).

•

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-107, § 1021

(Extension and Restatement of Authority to Provide Department of Defense Support for

Counter-Drug Activities of other Governmental Agencies).

•

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2002, Pub. L. No. 107-107, § 302.

•

National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2003, Pub. L. No. 107-248, Title II

Operation and Maintenance.

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National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year, 2009, Pub. L. No 110- 417, § 1022

(Extension and Restatement of Authority to Provide Department of Defense Support for

Counter-Drug Activities of other Governmental Agencies).

•

DoDD 1100.20 - Support and Services for Eligible Organizations and Activities Outside the

Department of Defense, April 12, 2004.

•

DoDD 2000.15 - Support to Special Events, December 8, 2003.

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DoDD 3025.18 - Defense Support of Civil Authorities, December 29, 2010.

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DoD 3025.1M - Manual for Civil Emergencies, June 94.

•

DoDD 3025.12 - Military Assistance for Civil Disturbances, February 4, 1994.

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DoDD 5200.31E - Single Manager for DoD Military Working Dog Program, March 29, 2006.

•

DoDD 5525.5 - DoD Cooperation With Civilian Law Enforcement Officials, January 15, 1986

(with Chg. 1, December 20, 1989).

•

DoD Financial Management Regulation (FMR) 7000.14-R, vol. 12, ch. 6.

•

NGR 500-1/ ANGI 10-8101 - Military Support to Civil Authorities, June 13, 2008.

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NGB 500-2/ ANGI 10-801 - National Guard Counterdrug Support, August 29, 2008.

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CJCSI 3710.01B, DoD Counterdrug Support, January 26, 2007.

•

AR 75-14/OPNAVINST 8027.1G/MCO 8027.1D/AFR 136-8 - Interservice Responsibilities for

Explosive Ordinance Disposal, February 14, 1992.

•

AR 75-15 - Responsibilities and Procedures for Explosive Ordinance Disposal, February 22,

2005.

•

AR 190-12, Military Working Dogs, June 4, 2007.

•

AR 700-131, Loan and Lease of Army Material, August 23, 2004.

•

AR 725-1, Special Authorization and Procedures for Issues, Sales, and Loans, October 17, 2003.

•

SECNAVINST 5820.7C - Cooperation With Civilian Law Enforcement Officials, January 26,

2006.

•

OPNAVINST 3440.16C - Navy Civil Emergency Management Program, March 10, 2005.

•

AFI 10-801 - Air Force Assistance to Civilian Law Enforcement Agencies, April 15, 1994.

•

AFI 10-802 - Military Support to Civil Authorities, April 19, 2002.

•

AFI 31-202 - Military Working Dog Program, May 16, 2009.

•

Commander Jim Winthrop, The Oklahoma City Bombing: Immediate Response Authority and

Other Military Assistance to Civil Authority (MACA), ARMY LAWYER, July 1997

Introduction: Basic Fiscal Law Framework

The principles of federal appropriations law permeate all federal activity. Fiscal issues arise

frequently during domestic operations, and the failure to understand fiscal nuances may lead to the

improper expenditure of funds and administrative and/or criminal sanctions against those

responsible for funding violations. There are several sources that define fund obligation and

expenditure authority: (1) Title 10, U.S. Code; (2) Title 31, U.S. Code; (3) Department of Defense

(DoD) appropriation acts; (4) DoD authorization acts; (5) agency regulations; (6) Department of

Justice Office of Legal Counsel opinions; (7) Comptroller General decisions; and (8) other

executive agencies’ authorities.

Under the Constitution, Congress raises revenue and appropriates funds for federal agency

operations and programs. See U.S. CONST., art. I, § 7. Courts interpret this constitutional authority

to mean that Executive Branch officials, e.g., commanders and staff members, must find affirmative

authority for the obligation and expenditure of appropriated funds.¹ See, e.g., U.S. v. MacCollom,

¹ An obligation arises when the government incurs a legal liability to pay for its requirements, e.g., supplies, services,

or construction. For example, a contract award normally triggers a fiscal obligation. Commands also incur obligations

when they obtain goods and services from other U.S. agencies or a host nation. An expenditure is an outlay of funds to

satisfy a legal obligation. Both obligations and expenditures are critical fiscal events. See 31 U.S.C., § 1501.

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426 U.S. 317, at 321 (1976) (“The established rule is that the expenditure of public funds is proper

only when authorized by Congress, not that public funds may be expended unless prohibited by

Congress.”) Likewise, in many cases, Congress has specifically limited the ability of the Executive

Branch to obligate and expend funds, in annual authorization or appropriations acts or in permanent

legislation.

Because DoD functions primarily in a support role in domestic operations, most military assistance

to civil authorities is provided on a reimbursable basis. In the case of some authorized activities

such as counter-drug support, Congress annually appropriates money for DoD to provide support.

For other authorized activities, Congress has established special “no year” accounts (such as the

Defense Emergency Response Fund (DERF) and the Support for International Sporting

Competitions (SISC) account) into which DoD can transfer part of its annual appropriation of

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) funds. Once O&M funds are transferred into such an account,

the funds are available for the same purposes and for the same time period as the appropriation to

which transferred. In providing some types of support such as Military Assistance to Safety and

Traffic (MAST), DoD has the authority to act directly and expend O&M funds. As a result of these

various types of situations, it is important to understand that the purpose, time, and amount rules

apply in domestic support operations.

B. Basic Fiscal Controls

Congress imposes fiscal controls through three basic mechanisms, each implemented by one or

more statutes. The controls are as follows: (1) obligations and expenditures must be for a proper

purpose; (2) obligations must occur within the time limits applicable to the appropriation (e.g.,

O&M funds are available for obligation for one fiscal year); and (3) obligations must be within the

amounts authorized by Congress.

1. Purpose

Although each fiscal control is important, the “purpose” control is most likely to become an issue

during military operations. The Purpose Statute provides that “[a]ppropriations shall be applied

only to the objects for which the appropriations were made except as otherwise provided by law.”

See 31 U.S.C. § 1301(a). Thus, expenditures must be authorized by law (permanent legislation or

annual appropriations act) or be “reasonably related” to the purpose of an appropriation. Judge

advocates should ensure, therefore, that an expenditure fits an appropriation (or permanent statutory

provision), or is for a purpose that is necessary and incident to the general purpose of an

appropriation; the expenditure is not prohibited by law; and the expenditure is not provided for

otherwise, i.e., it does not fall within the scope of some other appropriation.

A corollary to the “purpose” control is the prohibition against augmentation. See Nonreimbursable

Transfer of Admin. Law Judges, B-221585, 65 Comp. Gen. 635 (1986); cf. 31 U.S.C. § 1532

(prohibiting transfers from one appropriation to another except as authorized by law). Appropriated

funds designated for a general purpose may not be used for another purpose for which Congress has

appropriated other funds. Secretary of the Navy, 20 Comp. Gen. 272 (1940). If two funds are

equally available for a given purpose, an agency may elect to use either, but once the election is

made, the agency must continue to charge the same fund. See Funding for Army Repair Projects,

Comp. Gen. B-272191, Nov. 4, 1997, 97-2 CPD P141. This concept is known legally as the

“election doctrine,” and the election is binding even after the chosen appropriation is exhausted.

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Honorable Clarence Cannon, B-139510, May 13, 1959 (unpub.) (Rivers and Harbors Appropriation

exhausted; Shipbuilding and Conversion, Navy, unavailable to dredge channel to shipyard).

If an agency obligates funds outside the normal appropriation process, then the agency is

augmenting the funds that Congress has appropriated. In addition retaining those funds violates the

Miscellaneous Receipts Statute. See 31 U.S.C. § 3302(b); see also Interest Earned on Unauthorized

Loans of Fed. Grant Funds, B-246502, 71 Comp. Gen. 387 (1992). In addition, when the retained

funds are expended, this also violates the constitutional requirement for an appropriation. See Use

of Appropriated Funds by Air Force to Provide Support for Child Care Centers for Children of

Civilian Employees, B-222989, 67 Comp. Gen. 443 (1988); Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and

Firearms--Augmentation of Appropriations--Replacement of Autos by Negligent Third Parties, B

226004, 67 Comp. Gen. 510 (1988).

There are, however, statutory exceptions to the Miscellaneous Receipts Statute. For example intra

and intergovernmental acquisition authorities allow agencies to retain and use funds from sources

other than those appropriated by Congress. See, e.g., Economy Act, 31 U.S.C. § 1535. The

Economy Act authorizes a federal agency to order supplies or services from another federal agency.

For these transactions, the requesting agency must reimburse the performing agency fully for the

direct and indirect costs of providing the goods and services. See Washington Nat’l Airport; Fed.

Aviation Admin., B-136318, 57 Comp. Gen. 674 (1978) (depreciation and interest); Obligation of

Funds Under Mil. Interdep’tal Purchase Requests, B-196404, 59 Comp. Gen. 563 (1980); see also

DoD 7000.14-R, vol. 11A, ch. 1, para. 010201.J. (waiving overhead for transactions within DoD).

Judge advocates may wish to consult agency regulations for order approval requirements. See, e.g.,

Federal Acquisition Regulation Subpart 17.5; Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Subpart

217.5; and the Army Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement Subpart 17.5.

Congress also has authorized certain expenditures for military support to civil law enforcement

agencies (CLEAs) in counter-drug operations. Support to CLEAs is reimbursable unless it occurs

during normal training and results in DoD receiving a benefit substantially equivalent to that which

otherwise would be obtained from routine training or operations. See 10 U.S.C. § 377. Another

statutory provision authorizes operations or training to be conducted for the sole purpose of

providing CLEAs with specific categories of support. See § 1004 of the 1991 Defense

Authorization Act, codified at 10 U.S.C. § 374, note. In 10 U.S.C. § 124, Congress assigned DoD

the operational mission of detecting and monitoring international drug traffic (a traditional CLEA

function). By authorizing DoD support to CLEAs at essentially no cost, Congress has authorized

augmentation of CLEA appropriations.

2. Time

The “time” control has two major elements: Appropriations have a definite life span; and

appropriations normally must be used for the needs that arise during their period of availability.

Most appropriations are available for a finite period. For example, Operation and Maintenance

(O&M) funds, the appropriation most prevalent in an operational setting, are available for one year;

procurement appropriations are available for three years; and construction funds have a five-year

period of availability. If funds are not obligated during their period of availability, they expire and

are unavailable for new obligations (e.g., new contracts or changes outside the scope of an existing

contract). Expired funds may be used, however, to adjust existing obligations (e.g., to pay for a

price increase following an in-scope change to an existing contract). The “bona fide needs rule”

provides that funds are available only to satisfy requirements that arise during their period of

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availability, and will affect which fiscal year appropriation you will use to acquire supplies and

services. See 31 U.S.C. § 1502(a). This is commonly referred to as using current year funds for

current needs.

The bona fide need for supplies normally exists when the government actually will be able to use

the items. Thus, a command would use a currently available appropriation for computers needed

and purchased in the current fiscal year. Conversely, commands may not use current year funds for

computers that are not needed until the next fiscal year. Year-end spending for computers that will

be delivered within a reasonable time after the new fiscal year begins is proper, however, as long as

a current need is documented. Note that there are “lead-time” and “stock-level” exceptions to the

general rule governing purchases of supplies. See Defense Finance and Accounting Service Reg.

Indianapolis 37-1 [DFAS-IN 37-1], ch. 8. In any event, “stockpiling” items is prohibited. See Mr.

H.V. Higley, B-134277, Dec. 18, 1957 (unpub.).

Normally, severable services are bona fide needs of the period in which they are performed.

Grounds maintenance, custodial services, and vehicle/equipment maintenance are examples of

recurring services considered severable. Use current year funds for recurring services performed in

the current fiscal year. As an exception however, 10 U.S.C. § 2410a permits funding a contract (or

other agreement) for severable services using an appropriation current when the contract is

executed, even if some services will be performed in the subsequent fiscal year. Conversely,

nonseverable services are bona fide needs of the year in which a contract (or other agreement) is

executed. Nonseverable services are those that contemplate a single undertaking, e.g., studies,

reports, overhaul of an engine, painting a building, etc. Fund the entire undertaking with

appropriations current when the contract (or agreement) is executed. See DFAS-IN 37-1, ch. 8.

3. Amount

The Anti-Deficiency Act (ADA) prohibits any government officer or employee from making or

authorizing an expenditure or obligation in advance of or in excess of an appropriation (31 U.S.C. §

1341); making or authorizing an expenditure or incurring an obligation in excess of a formal

subdivision of funds, or in excess of amounts permitted by regulations prescribed under 31 U.S.C. §

1514(a) (31 U.S.C. § 1517); or accepting voluntary services, unless authorized by law (31 U.S.C. §

1342).

Commanders must ensure that fund obligations and expenditures do not exceed amounts provided

by higher headquarters. Although over obligation of an installation O&M account normally does

not trigger a reportable ADA violation, an over-obligation locally may lead to a breach of a formal

O&M subdivision at the Major Command level. See 31 U.S.C. § 1514(a) (requiring agencies to

subdivide and control appropriations by establishing administrative subdivisions); 31 U.S.C. 1517;

DFAS-IN 37-1, ch. 4.

Commanders must investigate suspected violations to establish responsibility and discipline

violators. Regulations require “flash reporting” of possible ADA violations. DoD 7000.14-R,

Financial Management Regulation, vol. 14; DFAS-IN 37-1, ch. 4. If a violation is confirmed, the

command must identify the cause of the violation as well as the senior responsible individual.

Investigators file reports through finance channels to the office of the Assistant Secretary of the

Army, Financial Management & Comptroller (ASA (FM&C)). Further reporting through Office of

the Secretary of Defense (OSD), Office of Management and Budget (OMB), Government

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Accountability Office (GAO), President, and Congress if ASA (FM&C) concurs with a finding of

violation.

By regulation, commanders must impose administrative sanctions on responsible individuals.

Criminal action also may be taken if a violation was knowing and willful (31 U.S.C. § 1349, §

1350). In previous cases, lawyers, commanders, contracting officers, and resource managers all

have been found to be responsible for violations. Common problems that have triggered potential

ADA violations include the following:

• Without statutory authority, obligating (e.g., awarding a contract) current year funds for the

bona fide needs of a subsequent fiscal year. This may occur when activities stockpile supply

items in excess of those required to maintain normal inventory levels.

• Exceeding a statutory limit (e.g., funding a contingency construction project in excess of

$750,000 with O&M; acquiring investment items with O&M funds).

• Obligating funds for purposes prohibited by annual or permanent legislation.

• Obligating funds for a purpose for which Congress has not appropriated funds (e.g., personal

expenses where there is no regulatory or case law support for the purchase or where Congress

has placed a funding prohibition).

C. Military Assistance to Civil Authorities

The military’s mission is to fight and win the nation’s wars. DoD will cooperate with civil

authorities, but the relationship is generally one of support—the civilian authorities retain primary

responsibility. The starting point for all DoD support is DoD Directive (DoDD) 3025.18. The

Posse Comitatus Act (18 U.S.C. § 1385) provides limitations on the types of support that the

military may provide to civil authorities. The following consist of allowable military support to

domestic operations.

• Civil disasters and emergencies. Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. §§ 5121, et seq.), DoDD 3025.18.

• Civil disturbances; Insurrection Act. 10 U.S.C. §§ 331-34, DoDD 3025.12.

• Support to civilian law enforcement:

• Loan of equipment. 10 U.S.C. § 372, DoDD 5525.5;

• Expert advice and training. 10 U.S.C. § 373, DoDD 5525.5;

• Sharing information. 10 U.S.C. § 371, DoDD 5525.5; and

• Maintenance and operation of equipment. 10 U.S.C. § 374, DoDD 5525.5.

• Counterdrug support:

• Detection and monitoring. 10 U.S.C. § 124; and

• Training and other support. Section 1004, Fiscal Year (FY) 91 NDAA, as amended by

Section 1021, FY 02, NDAA; CJCSI 3710.01B.

• Individual Readiness Training. 10 U.S.C. § 2012, DoDD 1100.20.

• Department of Defense Support to Special Events to include support to International Supporting

Events. 10 U.S.C. § 2564(a)-(c), DoDD 2000.15.

• Support to Private Organizations. 10 U.S.C. § 2554 (Boy Scouts of America), 10 U.S.C. § 2555

(Girl Scouts of America), 10 U.S.C. § 2551 (National Veterans’ Organizations), 10 U.S.C. §

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2552 (American Red Cross), 10 U.S.C. § 2558 (National Military Associations), and 10 U.S.C.

§ 2556 (Homeless).

• Loan or Lease of Non-Excess Property of a Military Department. 10 U.S.C. § 1535 (to other

federal agencies), 10 U.S.C. § 2667 (to anyone), and Army Regulation (AR) 700-131, Loan and

Lease of Army Material.

• Military Assistance to Safety and Traffic (MAST). DoDD 3025.1M.

• Explosive Ordinance Disposal (EOD): AR 75-14, AR 75-15.

• Military Working Dogs. DoDD 5200.31, AR 190-21.

• Miscellaneous support:

• Sensitive support. DoDD S-5210-36;

• Law enforcement detachments. 10 U.S.C. § 379; and

• Emergencies involving chemical or biological weapons. 10 U.S.C. § 382.

D. DoDD 3025.18

This Directive governs all DoD military assistance provided to civil authorities within the 50 States,

District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and U.S. possessions and territories. It provides six criteria

against which all requests for support shall be evaluated. Commanders at all levels should use these

criteria in providing a recommendation up the chain of command.

• Legality - compliance with the law.

• Lethality - potential use of lethal force by or against DoD forces.

• Risk - safety of DoD forces.

• Cost - who pays and the impact on DoD budget.

• Appropriateness - whether conducting the requested mission is in the interest of DoD.

• Readiness - impact on DoD’s ability to perform its primary mission.

The Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) is the approval authority for civil disturbances, responses to

acts of terrorism, and support that will result in a planned event with the potential for confrontation

with specifically identified individuals or groups, or which will result in the use of lethal force.

When Combatant Command-assigned forces are to be used, there must be coordination with the

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS). CJCS will determine whether there is a significant

issue requiring SECDEF approval, after coordination with the affected Combatant Command.

Immediate response authority in the local commander is not affected. However, previously, local

commanders could engage in support operations under an unwritten rule that such support should

not normally extend beyond 72 hours. That rule is now memorialized formally in DoDD 3025.18 at

para. 4(g)(2) (noting that “[t]he DoD official directing a response under immediate response authority

shall reassess whether there remains a necessity for the Department of Defense to respond under this

authority as soon as practicable but, if immediate response activities have not yet ended, not later than

72 hours after the request for assistance was received.”)

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E. Disaster and Emergency Relief²

The Stafford Act provides four means by which the federal government may become involved in a

disaster and relief effort: the President may declare the area a major disaster (42 U.S.C. § 5170); the

President may declare the area an emergency (42 U.S.C. § 5191) (same criteria as for a major

disaster, except also requires that the governor define the type and amount of federal aid required,

and total federal assistance may not exceed $5 million); the President may send in DoD assets on an

emergency basis to “preserve life and property” (42 U.S.C. § 5170b(c)); and the President may send

in federal assets where an emergency occurs in an area over which the federal government exercises

primary responsibility by virtue of the Constitution or federal statute (42 U.S.C. § 5191(b)).

The Department of Homeland Security, through the Federal Emergency Management Agency

(FEMA) directs and coordinates the federal response on behalf of the President. DHS has prepared

the National Response Framework, which defines fifteen Emergency Support Functions (ESF’s) for

which certain federal agencies have either a primary or supporting role. The Corps of Engineers is

the primary agency for ESF #3, Public Works and Engineering. DoD is a supporting agency for all

others.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency appoints a Federal Coordinating Officer (FCO),

typically the senior FEMA official on-scene. Because of the likelihood of DoD involvement, a

Defense Coordinating Officer (DCO) is assigned to the FCO. The DCO, an O-6 or above, is

identified from a Training Support Brigade (TSB). Training Support Brigades are located

throughout the continental United States (CONUS). Training Support Brigade commanders are

dual-hatted as DCOs. The DCO will be the FCO’s single point of contact for DoD support. The

FCO issues Mission Assignments, defining the task and maximum reimbursement amount, to the

federal agencies.

The Department of Defense is reimbursed by FEMA for the incremental costs of providing support

pursuant to the DCO’s tasking in response to the FEMA mission assignment. Incremental expenses

are reimbursed, or those incurred by the agency providing the military assistance that—but for the

request for assistance—would not otherwise have incurred these expenses. The Department of

Defense Financial Management Regulation (FMR) 7000.14-R, vol. 12, ch. 6., para. 060204, lists

the following costs as eligible for reimbursement:

• Overtime, travel, and per diem of permanent DoD civilian personnel.

• Wages, travel, and per diem of temporary DoD civilian personnel assigned solely to

performance of services directed by the Executive Agent.

• Travel and per diem of active duty military, and costs of reserve component personnel called to

active duty by a federal official who is assigned solely to the performance of services directed

by the Executive Agent.

² Disaster Relief Statutes (Stafford Act), 42 U.S.C. § 5121; U.S. DEP’T OF DEFENSE, DIR. 3025.18, DEFENSE SUPPORT

OF CIVIL AUTHORITIES (DSCA) (29 Dec. 2010); U.S. DEP’T OF DEFENSE, MAN. DOD 3025.1-M, DOD MANUAL FOR

CIVIL EMERGENCIES (Jun. 1994); NATIONAL GUARD BUREAU, REG. 500-1/ANGI 10-8101, MILITARY SUPPORT TO CIVIL

AUTHORITIES (13 Jun. 2008) [hereinafter NGR 500-1]; CHIEF OF NAVAL OPERATIONS, INSTR. 3440.1C; NAVY CIVIL

EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT; U.S. DEP’T OF AIR FORCE, INSTR. 10-802, MILITARY SUPPORT TO CIVIL AUTHORITIES (19

Apr. 2002).

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• Cost of work, services, and material procured under contract for the purposes of providing

assistance directed by the Executive Agent.

• Cost of materials, equipment and supplies (including transportation, repair and maintenance)

from regular stocks used in providing directed assistance.

• All costs incurred which are paid from trust, revolving, or other funds, and whose

reimbursement the law requires.

• Other costs submitted with written justification or otherwise agreed to in writing by the Joint

Director of Military Support or appropriate Service representative.

Requests for reimbursement may be made through use of the SF 1080, Voucher for Transfers

between Appropriations or Funds. It is important to note that Federal agencies which exceed the

reimbursement amount, or execute tasks not within the Mission Assignment, may not be

reimbursed.

For the DoD response, the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense and Americas’

Security Affairs (ASD(HD&ASA)) is the DoD lead for disaster relief operations. As such, they are

the approval authority for all such support, unless it involves Combatant Command-assigned forces

(see discussion of DoDD 3025.18, above). The Joint Director of Military Support (JDOMS) is the

ASD(HD&ASA) agent. The JDOMS coordinates and monitors the DoD effort. The JDOMS

normally produces the Execute Order and obtains the SECDEF’s signature for a given mission.

USNORTHCOM (CONUS, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands) and USPACOM (Alaska, Hawaii,

and Pacific possessions and territories) are responsible for developing disaster response plans and

for the execution of those plans. They may form a Joint Task Force for this purpose.

1. Immediate Response Authority

Immediate response authority permits local military commanders to act immediately to save lives,

prevent human suffering, and mitigate great property damage in imminently serious conditions

when time does not permit approval from higher headquarters. Types of support authorized include

rescue, evacuation, and emergency treatment of casualties; emergency restoration of essential public

services; emergency removal of debris and explosive ordnance; and recovery and disposal of the

dead. This type of support is provided on a reimbursable basis, but assistance should not be denied

because the requester is unable or unwilling to commit to reimbursement.

Immediate response authority is very limited and should be invoked only for bona fide emergencies.

Contemporaneous coordination with JDOMS and ASD(HD&ASA) should always occur in these

scenarios, and in any other case potentially involving this type of assistance to civil authorities. The

JDOMS has indicated that this assistance should not exceed 72 hours. To obtain reimbursement for

costs incurred as a result of an immediate response, DoD should request reimbursement from the

state or local government to whom assistance was provided. Often, the state and local governments

do not have the available funding to reimburse. As a result, in the past DoD has looked to the

Defense Emergency Response Fund for reimbursement.

2. Defense Emergency Response Fund (DERF)

The DERF was created in the FY90 National Defense Appropriation Act, Pub. L. 101-165, in

response to Hurricane Hugo. Under this provision, “the Fund is available for providing

reimbursement to currently applicable appropriations of the [DoD] for supplies and services

provided in anticipation of requests from other Federal Departments and agencies and State and

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local governments for assistance on a reimbursable basis to respond to natural and manmade

disasters.”

In FY94, § 8131 of the National Defense Appropriation Act, Pub. L. No. 103-139, amended the

FY90 provision giving DoD the ability to request reimbursement from the DERF for its own

disaster response efforts. Specifically, the language provides: “the Fund may be used, in addition to

other funds available to DoD for such purposes, for expenses of DoD which are incurred in

supplying supplies and services furnished in response to natural or manmade disasters.”

Prior to November 2003, if the state and local government failed to reimburse, the command would

forward reimbursement to the DERF. DoD Financial Management Regulation 7000.14-R, vol. 12,

ch. 6. This fund is available for providing reimbursement to currently applicable appropriations of

DoD for supplies and services provided in anticipation of requests from other federal departments

and agencies and from state and local governments for assistance on a reimbursable basis to respond

to natural or manmade disasters.

Since November 2003, the DERF has been closed out (§ 1105 of the FY04 Emergency

Supplemental Appropriations Act). This section provides that, effective 1 Nov. 2003, adjustments

to obligations that before such date would have been properly chargeable to the DERF shall be

charged to current appropriations available for the same purpose. If the DERF does not cover the

costs, the request should be forwarded to FEMA. On rare occasions, FEMA has provided

reimbursement to the DoD for Immediate Response assistance by “ratifying” the DoD action after

the fact. Such ratification, however, is done on a case-by-case basis. Commanders cannot rely on

FEMA doing so in every case. FEMA is under no obligation to reimburse the DoD for response

actions taken prior to a Presidential Declaration and in some case may not have the legal authority

to reimburse DoD if no Presidential declaration occurs. If no one reimburses the affected

command, the costs of the Immediate Response assistance are funded through unit O&M, which is

the most likely outcome. In some rare circumstances, such as man-made disasters, funding

available under OPERATION NOBLE EAGLE may provide a solution.

3. Disaster Support Involving Law Enforcement Authorities

The Stafford Act is not an exception to the Posse Comitatus Act (PCA) (18 U.S.C. § 1385).

Therefore, any support that includes direct involvement in the enforcement of the civil law must

undergo the PCA analysis discussed below. Typical areas of concern include directing traffic,

guarding supply depots, and patrolling. National Guard personnel, acting in their Title 32 (State)

status, should be used whenever possible. Law enforcement duties that involve military functions

may be permissible (e.g., guarding a military supply depot).

F. Civil Disturbances³

The maintenance of law and order is primarily vested in state and local officials. Involvement of

military forces will only be appropriate in extraordinary circumstances. Use of the military under

³ U.S. CONST. art. IV, § 4: “The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of

Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive

(when the Legislature cannot be convened), against domestic Violence”; Insurrections, 10 U.S.C. §§ 331-335; U.S.

DEP’T OF DEFENSE, DIR. 3025.12, MILITARY ASSISTANCE FOR CIVIL DISTURBANCES (MACDIS) (4 Feb. 1994).

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these authorities to conduct law enforcement activities is a specific exception to the PCA. The

probable order of employment of forces in response to a certain situation will be (1) local and state

police; (2) National Guard in their state status; (3) federal civil law enforcement officials; and (4)

Federal military troops, to include National Guard called to active federal service.

The insurrection statutes permit the President to use the armed forces domestically under certain

circumstances. The Attorney General coordinates all federal government activities relating to civil

disturbances. If the President decides to respond to the situation, he must first issue a proclamation

to the insurgents, prepared by the Attorney General, directing them to disperse within a limited

time. 10 U.S.C. § 334. At the end of that time period, the President may issue an Executive Order

directing the use of armed forces. The Attorney General appoints a Senior Civilian Representative

of the Attorney General (SCRAG) as his action agent.

For the DoD response, SECDEF has reserved to himself the authority to approve support in

response to civil disturbances (DoDD 3025.18). Although the civilian authorities have the primary

responsibility for civil disturbances, military forces shall remain under military command and

control at all times. Military forces shall not be used for civil disturbances unless specifically

directed by the President (pursuant to 10 U.S.C. §§ 331-334), except for emergency employment of

military forces in the following limited circumstances:

• To prevent the loss of life or wanton destruction of property or to restore governmental

functioning, in cases of civil disturbances, if the duly constituted authority local authorities are

unable to control the situation and circumstances preclude obtaining prior Presidential

authorization.

• When duly constituted state or local authorities are unable or decline to provide adequate

protection for federal property or functions.

Although employment under these authorities permits direct enforcement of the law by military

forces, the military’s role in law enforcement should be minimized as much as possible. DoD’s role

is to support the civilian authorities, not replace them. Once the President directs the employment

of military forces (federal), then this is a DoD mission and O&M funds are used to cover the cost.

G. Support to Civilian Law Enforcement.⁴

Although certain activities could be considered law enforcement type activities, they do not violate

the PCA because they do not involve use of military personnel to provide direct assistance. With

proper approval, DoD activities may make equipment (including associated supplies and spare

parts), base facilities, or research facilities available to federal, state, or local law enforcement

officials for law enforcement purposes. (This authority is expanded for chemical or biological

incidents.)

10 U.S.C. §§ 372-374, 377; U.S. DEP’T OF DEFENSE, DIR. 5525.5, DOD COOPERATION WITH CIVILIAN LAW

ENFORCEMENT OFFICIALS, Encl. 3 (15 Jan. 1986) [hereinafter DoDD 5525.5]; NGR 500-1, supra note 2; U.S. DEP’T OF

NAVY, SEC’Y NAVY INSTR. 5820.7C, COOPERATION WITH CIVILIAN LAW ENFORCEMENT OFFICIALS, para. 8 (26 Jan.

2006) [hereinafter SECNAVINST 5820.7C]; U.S. DEP’T OF AIR FORCE, INSTR. 10-802, MILITARY SUPPORT TO CIVIL

AUTHORITIES, Attachment 4 (18 Apr. 2002) [hereinafter AFI 10-802].

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Under 10 U.S.C. § 374(a), SECDEF may make DoD personnel available for the maintenance of

equipment provided, to include equipment provided pursuant to 10 U.S.C. § 372. Under 10 U.S.C.

§ 374(b)(1), SECDEF may, upon a request from the head of a federal law enforcement agency,

make DoD personnel available to operate equipment with respect to criminal violations of the

Controlled Substances Act, the Immigration and Naturalization Act, the Tariff Act of 1930, the

Maritime Drug Law Enforcement Act, and any law, foreign or domestic, prohibiting terrorist

activities; a foreign or domestic counter-terrorism operation; or a rendition of a suspected terrorist

from a foreign country to the United States to stand trial.

Under 10 U.S.C. § 374(b)(2), DoD personnel made available to a civilian law enforcement agency

may operate equipment for the following purposes.

• Detection, monitoring, and communication of the movement of air and sea traffic.

• Detection, monitoring, and communication of the movement of surface traffic outside of the

geographic boundary of the United States and within the United States not to exceed 25 miles of

the boundary if the initial detection occurred outside the boundary.

• Aerial reconnaissance.

• Interception of vessels or aircraft detected outside the land area of the United States for the

purposes of communicating with and directing said vehicle to a specific location.

• Operating equipment to facilitate communications.

• Subject to joint approval by SECDEF and Attorney General:

• Transportation of civilian law enforcement personnel along with any other civilian or

military personnel who are supporting, or conducting, a joint operation with civilian law

enforcement personnel;

• Operation of a base of operations; and

• Transportation of suspected terrorists from foreign countries to the U.S. for trial (so long as

the requesting federal law enforcement agency provides all security for such transportation

and maintains custody over the suspect through the duration of the transportation).

1. Economy Act

Pursuant to 10 U.S.C. § 377, the support provided between federal agencies under these authorities

is reimbursable under the Economy Act, unless the support is provided in the normal course of

training or operations, or the support results in a substantially equivalent training value. Under 31

U.S.C. § 1535, an Economy Act order may be placed by the head of an agency (delegable down to a

warranted contracting officer) with another agency. The order may be a Military Interdepartmental

Purchase Request (MIPR), a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) for support, or an interagency

agreement. Form is not the key—content is the critical matter. The definition of “agency” includes

military departments. (Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) 2.101) The content defines the type

of support to be rendered and the reimbursement to be provided.

2. Miscellaneous Receipts

The Miscellaneous Receipts Statute, 31 U.S.C. § 3302(b), requires that any dollars received by an

agency must go into the general treasury, without any deduction for any charges or claims, unless

there is a positive authority like the Economy Act that allows an agency to retain the money.

Although the language in 10 U.S.C. § 372 et seq. authorizes support to state and local civilian law

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enforcement agencies, the reimbursement provision in 10 U.S.C. § 377 provides no mechanism for

reimbursement except for support between federal agencies. If commanders loan equipment to state

or local CLEAs under this authority, any reimbursement obtained would go into Miscellaneous

Receipts. It is important to note that reimbursement is required, unless the law allows a waiver.

The only way to avoid this problem is for the commander to lease the equipment under 10 U.S.C. §

2667. The Leasing Statute provides a mechanism for reimbursement. If a loan is authorized, there

must be no adverse impact on national security or military preparedness. (Specific details regarding

the Leasing Statute are in Section L of this Chapter)

The SECDEF is the approval authority for any requests for potentially lethal support, including

loans of arms, combat and tactical vehicles, vessels, aircraft, or ammunition. For the Army, HQDA

(DALO-SMS) may approve requests for non-lethal equipment in excess of sixty days. The

installation commander may approve all other equipment requests if loan/lease is for sixty days or

less. The HQDA (DAMO-ODS) may approve requests for use of installation or research facilities.

For the Navy and Marine Corps, the Assistant Secretary of the Navy (SECNAV) (Manpower and

Reserve Affairs) may approve requests for non-lethal equipment for more than sixty days. All other

requests may be approved as specified in SECNAVINST 5820.7C. For the Air Force, Assistant

Secretary of the Air Force (SECAF) for Manpower, Reserve Affairs, Installations, and Environment

may approve requests for all non-drug related requests (AFI 10-801, Attachment 4). For the

National Guard (NG), the loan of weapons, combat/tactical vehicles, vessels and aircraft require

approval of the service secretary or their designee. Requests for loan/lease of NG equipment, which

require HQDA or HQAF approval, will be reviewed by National Guard Bureau (NGB) (NGB 500

1/ANGI 10-8101).

3. Excess Property

In addition to loan/lease authority, The National Defense Authorization Act of 1997 added a new

section to Title 10. Section 2576a, “Excess Personal Property; Sale or Donation for law

enforcement activities,” permits DoD to provide excess personal property suitable for use in

counter-drug and counter-terrorism activities to federal and state agencies. 10 U.S.C. § 2576

authorizes the surplus sale of military equipment to state and local law enforcement and firefighting

agencies. 10 U.S.C. § 2576a authorizes the surplus sale or donation of military equipment to

federal and state agencies for law enforcement. The primary focus is to support counter-drug or

counter-terrorism activities. Recipient takes equipment on an as-is, where-is basis at no cost to

DoD, and equipment must be drawn from current stocks.

10 U.S.C. § 2576b authorizes the surplus sale or donation of military property to any firefighting

agency in a state. Additionally, the same conditions concerning as-is and where-is, as noted above,

apply to this provision. Authority to furnish small arms and ammunition is included. As of October

1, 1995, the Defense Logistics Agency manages this program (Memorandum of the Secretary of

Defense for the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition and Technology, 26 June 1995). The

four Regional Logistics Support Offices (Buffalo, Miami, El Paso, and Los Angeles) actually

provide this excess property.

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4. Expert Advice and Training⁵

Military personnel may be used to train civilian law enforcement personnel in the use of equipment

that the military provides. Large scale or elaborate training programs are prohibited, as is regular or

direct involvement of military personnel in activities that are fundamentally civilian law

enforcement operations. The Deputy Secretary of Defense has provided policy guidance in this

area, which limits the types of training U.S. forces may provide. The policy is based on prudent

concerns that advanced training could be misapplied or misused by CLEAs, resulting in death or

injury to non-hostile persons.

The memorandum permits basic military training such as basic marksmanship, patrolling,

medical/combat lifesaver, mission planning, and survival skills. It prohibits what it terms “advance

military training,” which is defined as “high intensity training which focuses on the tactics,

techniques, and procedures (TTPs) required to apprehend, arrest, detain, search for, or seize a

criminal suspect when the potential for a violent confrontation exists.” Examples of such training

are sniper training, Military Operations in Urban Terrain (MOUT), Advanced MOUT, and Close

Quarter Battle/Close Quarter Combat (CQB/CQC) training. A single general exception exists to

provide this advanced training at the U.S. Army Military Police School. In addition, Commander,

U.S. Special Operations Command may approve this training, on an exceptional basis, by special

operations forces personnel.

Military personnel may also be called upon to provide expert advice to civilian law enforcement

personnel. However, regular or direct involvement in activities that are fundamentally civilian law

enforcement operations is prohibited. A specific example of this type of support is military working

dog team support to civilian law enforcement. The dogs have been analogized to equipment, and

their handlers to providers of expert advice (DoDD 5525.10, Using Military Working Dog Teams to

Support Law Enforcement Agencies in Counterdrug Missions, 17 Sept. 1990; Military Working

Dog Program, AFI 31-202).

The SECDEF is the approval authority for training or expert advice to law enforcement in which

there is a potential for confrontation between the trained law enforcement and specifically identified

civilian individuals or groups, for assignments of fifty or more DoD personnel, or for a period of

assignment of more than thirty days. The Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower, Reserve

Affairs, and Logistics) is the approval authority for any other assignment. For the Army, Joint

Director of Military Support (JDOMS) is the approval authority. For the Navy and Marine Corps, it

is the Secretary of the Navy (SECNAVINST 5820.7C, para. 9.e).

Support provided under these authorities to a federal agency is reimbursable under the Economy

Act, unless the support is provided in the normal course of training or operations, or the support

results in a substantially equivalent training value. It is important to note that pursuant to 31 U.S.C.

§ 6505, the “Intergovernmental Cooperation Act,” authorizes federal agencies to provide to state

and local governments “statistical and other studies and compilations, development projects,

technical tests and evaluations, technical information, training activities, surveys, reports, and

documents and other similar services that an executive agent is especially competent and authorized

by law to perform.”

10 U.S.C. §§ 373, 375, 377; 50 U.S.C. §§ 2312, 2315; DoDD 5525.5, supra note 4, Encl. 4; SECNAVINST 5820.7C,

supra note 4, paras. 9.a.(4)-(5); AFI 10-802, supra note 4.

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This list is very specific and really does not include the type of operational assistance that state and

local governments request from DoD. Two common requests are for the provision of “technical

information and training activities.” OMB Circular A-97 defines these two as follows: 1) training

of the type which the federal agency is authorized by law to conduct for federal personnel and

others or which is similar to such training; and 2) technical information, data processing,

communications, and personnel management systems services which the federal agency normally

provides for itself or others under existing authorities.

What 31 U.S.C. § 6505 does provide for is a reimbursement mechanism between the federal and

state/local level because reimbursements received by the federal agency for the costs of services

provided will be deposited to the credit of the principal appropriation or other account from which

the costs of providing the services have been paid or are to be charged. It is important to remember

that these reimbursed dollars do not go into the Miscellaneous Receipts account.

5. Sharing Information⁶

Any information collected in the normal course of military operations may be provided to

appropriate civilian law enforcement agencies. Collection must be compatible with military

training and planning. To the maximum extent practicable, the needs of civilian law enforcement

officials shall be taken into account in planning and execution of military training and operations

(10 U.S.C. § 371(b)).

H. Counterdrug Support⁷

Counterdrug support operations have become an important activity within DoD. All DoD support is

coordinated through the Office of the Defense Coordinator for Drug Enforcement Policy and

Support (DEP&S), which is located within the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for

Special Operations and Low Intensity Conflict (ASD (SO/LIC)). DoD support to counterdrug

operations is funded through annual DoD appropriations unlike other support provided by DoD,

which must be reimbursed by the agency receiving support. For FY04, Congress appropriated

nearly $836 million for DoD counterdrug support. The Office of the Defense Coordinator for Drug

Enforcement Policy and Support channels that money to the providers of counterdrug support.

1. Detection and Monitoring

DoD is the lead federal agency for detection and monitoring (D&M) of aerial and maritime transit

of illegal drugs into the United States (10 U.S.C. § 124). D&M is therefore a DoD mission.

Although a military mission, D&M is to be carried out in support of federal, state, and local law

enforcement authorities. Note that the statute does not extend to D&M missions covering land

transit (i.e., the Mexican border). Interception of vessels or aircraft is permissible outside the land

area of the United States to identify and direct the vessel or aircraft to a location designated by the

10 U.S.C. § 371; DoDD 5525.5, supra note 4, Encl. 2; SECNAVINST 5820.7C, supra note 4, para. 7; AFI 10-802,

supra note 4, ch. 4.

10 U.S.C. § 124; 32 U.S.C. § 112; sec. 1004, FY91 NDAA as amended by sec. 1021, FY02 NDAA; sec. 1031, FY97

NDAA; sec. 1033, FY98 NDAA; DEP&S Policy of 26 Jan. 1995; CHAIRMAN JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF, INSTR. 3710.01B,

DOD COUNTERDRUG SUPPORT (26 Jan. 2007) [hereinafter CJCSI 3710.01B]; NATIONAL GUARD BUREAU, REG. 500

2/ANGI 10-801, NATIONAL GUARD COUNTERDRUG SUPPORT (28 Aug. 2008).

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supported civilian authorities. Detection and monitoring missions involve airborne (Airborne

Warning and Control Systems (AWACS), aerostats), seaborne (primarily U.S. Navy (USN)

vessels), and land-based radar (to include Remote Over The Horizon Radar (ROTHR)) sites.

Federal funding for National Guard counterdrug activities, to include pay, allowances, travel

expenses, and operations and maintenance expenses is provided pursuant to 32 U.S.C. § 112. The

State must prepare a drug interdiction and counter-drug activities plan. The Office of the Defense

Coordinator for Drug Enforcement Policy and Support reviews each State’s implementation plan

and disburses funds.

2. Additional Support

Congress has given DoD additional authorities to support federal, state, local, and foreign

governments that have counterdrug responsibilities. These are in addition to the authorities

contained in 10 U.S.C. §§ 371-377 (discussed above). These have not been codified, however, so it

is necessary to refer to the public laws instead. Many of these are reproduced in the notes following

10 U.S.C. § 374 in the annotated codes. Section 1004, as amended by § 1021, is the primary

authority used for counterdrug operations. The statute permits broad support to federal, state, and

local as well as foreign authorities (when requested by a federal counterdrug agency, typically the

Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) or a member of the State Department country team that has

counterdrug responsibilities). These authorities are not exceptions to the Posse Comitatus Act, and

any support provided must comply with the restrictions of the PCA. Additionally, any domestic

training provided must comply with the Deputy Secretary of Defense policy on advanced training.

Types of permitted support include maintenance and repair of equipment; transportation of

personnel (United States and foreign), equipment, and supplies CONUS/OCONUS; establishment

of bases of operations CONUS/OCONUS; training of law enforcement personnel, to include

associated support and training expenses; detection and monitoring of air, sea, surface traffic

outside the United States, and within twenty-five miles of the border if the detection occurred

outside the United States; construction of roads, fences, and lighting along U.S. border; linguist and

intelligence analyst services; aerial and ground reconnaissance; and establishment of command,

control, communication, and computer networks for improved integration of law enforcement,

active military, and National Guard activities.

Approval authorities are contained in CJCSI 3710.01B. Non-operational support—that which does

not involve the active participation of DoD personnel—including the provision of equipment only,

use of facilities, and formal schoolhouse training, is requested and approved in accordance with

DoDD 5525.5 and implementing Service regulations, discussed above. For operational support, the

Secretary of Defense is the approval authority. The approval will typically be reflected in a CJCS-

issued deployment order.

The SECDEF has delegated approval authority for certain missions to Combatant Commanders,

with the ability for further delegation, but no delegation lower than a flag officer. The delegation

from SECDEF depends on the type of support provided, the number of personnel provided, and the

length of the mission. See CJCSI 3710.01B. Example: for certain missions along the southwest

border of the U.S., the delegation runs from SECDEF to NORTHCOM to Joint Task Force North

(JTF North). Requests for DoD support must meet the following criteria:

• Support request must have a clear counterdrug connection;

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• Support request must originate with federal, state or local agency having counterdrug

responsibilities;

• Request must be for support DoD is authorized to provide;

• Support must clearly assist with counterdrug activities of agency;

• Support is consistent with DoD support of the National Drug Control Strategy;

• DEP&S Priorities for the provision of support;

• Multi-jurisdictional, multi-agency task forces that are in a high intensity drug trafficking area

(HIDTA);

• Individual agencies in a HIDTA;

• Multi-jurisdictional, multi-agency task forces not in a HIDTA;

• Individual agencies not in a HIDTA;

• All approved CD operational support must have military training value.

Under § 1206, of the FY 1990 NDAA, Congress directed the armed forces, to the maximum extent

practicable, to conduct training exercises in declared drug interdiction areas. In § 1031 of the FY

1997 NDAA, Congress authorized and provided additional funding specifically for enhanced

support to Mexico. The support involves the transfer of certain non-lethal specialized equipment

such as communication, radar, navigation, and photo equipment. Under § 1033, FY 1998 NDAA,

Congress authorized, and provided additional funding specifically for, enhanced support to

Colombia and Peru. Section 1021 of the FY 2004 NDAA, expands the list of eligible countries to

include Afghanistan, Bolivia, Ecuador, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. This

authority was extended by § 1021 of the FY 2009 National Defense Authorization Act. This

authority is subject to extension by the annual National Defense Authorization Act; the latest

NDAA will determine what funds have been specifically authorized by Congress, who those funds

were authorized for, and what the funding limitations are.

Innovative Readiness Training⁸

Innovative Readiness Training (IRT) is primarily a guard and reserve program and is similar in

appearance to 10 U.S.C. § 401, Humanitarian and Civic Assistance (HCA) for overseas operations.

IRT is military training conducted off base in the civilian community that utilizes the units and

individuals of the armed forces under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of a military department or a

combatant commander, to assist civilian efforts in addressing civic and community needs of the

United States, its territories and possessions, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico as provided for

within 10 U.S.C. § 2012.

Examples of IRT activities include constructing rural roads and aircraft runways, small building and

warehouse construction in remote areas; transporting medical supplies, equipment and material to

medically underserved areas of the country; and providing medical and dental care to Native

Americans, Alaska Natives, and other medically underserved communities.

Any federal, regional, state, or local governmental entity is eligible to receive the assistance, as are

youth and charitable organizations specified in § 508 of Title 32, and any other entity as may be

10 U.S.C. § 2012; U.S. DEP’T OF DEFENSE, DIR. 1100.20, SUPPORT AND SERVICES FOR ELIGIBLE ORGANIZATIONS AND

ACTIVITIES OUTSIDE THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (12 Apr. 2004); DoD Policy Memoranda dated July 1999, Aug.

2000, and Apr. 2002.

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approved by SECDEF on a case-by-case basis. There must be a relationship to military training.

Assistance may be provided only if: (1) the assistance provided accomplishes valid unit training

requirements; or (2) the assistance provided by an individual involves tasks that directly relate to the

specific Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) of the military member.

An exception exists if the unit assistance consists primarily of military manpower and the total

amount of such assistance on a particular project does not exceed 100 man-hours. For most

projects, the requests will be fulfilled by volunteers and any assistance other than manpower will be

extremely limited. Government vehicles may be used, but only to provide transportation to and

from the work site. The use of Government aircraft is prohibited.

Operations and Maintenance funding expenditures are authorized for expendable readiness training

items only. These may include, but are not limited to, the following: fuel; equipment lease; travel;

training supplies; and incidental costs to support the training not normally provided for a

deployment. Innovative Readiness Training O&M funds are not authorized for the payment of

civilian manpower contracts, e.g., contracting a civilian labor force to perform duties related to IRT

activities (19 July 1999, DoD policy memorandum). DoD policy memorandum dated 24 Aug.

2000 provides guidance that annual National Defense Authorization and Appropriation Acts will

authorize the transfer of a certain amount of defense-wide O&M funds ($20 million in FY03) to be

transferred to fund pay and allowances for personnel working on IRT program projects. In April

2002, DoD issued additional guidelines to include the requirement for a Certification of Non-

Competition with other public or private sector organizations. This comports with the statutory

language that “the assistance is not reasonably available from a commercial entity.” Innovative

Readiness Training assistance is not authorized in response to natural or man-made disasters or in

support of civilian law enforcement.

J. DoD Support to Special Events⁹

Upon the request of a federal, state, or local government agency responsible for providing law

enforcement services, security services, or safety services, the SECDEF may authorize the

commander of a military installation or other DoD facility or a Combatant Commander to provide

assistance for special events, including international sporting events such as World Cup Soccer

Games, the Goodwill Games, the Olympics, and any other civilian sporting event. The Attorney

General must certify that such assistance is necessary to meet essential security or safety needs.

Additional conditions are that such assistance cannot reasonably be met by another source or

agency, that there is no adverse impact on military readiness, and that the requesting agency agrees

to reimburse DoD. It is important to note that this statutory provision does not apply to Special

Olympics and The Paralympics because these events are authorized and funded under a different

authority, the Support for International Sporting Competitions (SISC) account that funds support of

International Sporting Competitions. Support provided under 10 U.S.C. § 2564 is reimbursable

under the Economy Act, unless the support is provided in the normal course of training or

operations, or the support results in a substantially equivalent training value.

10 U.S.C. § 2564; U.S. DEP’T OF DEFENSE, DIR. 2000.15, SUPPORT TO SPECIAL EVENTS (8 Dec. 2003) [hereinafter

DoDD 2000.15].

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The SISC account established in 1996 pursuant to Pub. L. No. 104-208, § 5802 is a “no year”

account that consolidated appropriations of previous events. As noted earlier, DoD transfers O&M

into this account. Because the account is set up as a “no year use until expended account,” that rule

applies to any money transferred into the account. The account authorized the funding of logistical

and security support (other than pay and non-travel-related allowances of members of the Armed

Forces of the United States, except for members of the reserve components thereof called or ordered

to active duty in connection with providing such support).

In the NDAA FY2002, Pub. L. No. 107-107, § 302, Congress amended the law to include state

active duty and full-time National Guard to be included in the definition of “active duty.” Under

this change, the SISC account could fund the pay and non-travel-related allowances of these two

groups of individuals when they provided essential security and safety support during the 2002

Winter Olympic Games and the 2002 Paralympic Games. In the same provision, Congress waived

the requirement that the Attorney General had to certify that support was necessary for the 2002

Winter Olympic Games. It is important to note that this waiver was event-specific, and ordinarily

certification by the Attorney General is required.

K. Support to Private Organizations and Individuals

1. Boy Scouts of America

10 U.S.C. § 2554 allows DoD to provide equipment and transportation to the Boy Scouts for

National and World Jamborees. Support is provided on a no-cost basis to the U.S. government and

requires bonding to ensure reimbursement.

2. Girl Scouts of America

10 U.S.C. § 2555 allows DoD to provide transportation only to Girl Scouts to support international

Girl Scout events. Support is provided on a no-cost basis to the U.S. government and requires

bonding to ensure reimbursement.

3. National Veterans’ Organizations

10 U.S.C. § 2551 allows DoD to provide equipment and barracks to national veterans’ organizations

to support state and national conventions or national youth athletic tournaments. Support is

provided on a no-cost basis to the U.S. government and requires bonding to ensure reimbursement.

4. American Red Cross

10 U.S.C. § 2552 allows DoD to provide equipment for instruction and practice to the American

Red Cross. Support is provided on a no-cost basis to the U.S. government and requires bonding

(twice value of equipment loaned) to ensure reimbursement.

5. National Military Associations

DoD is allowed by 10 U.S.C. § 2558 to provide specified support to designated “National Military

Associations” for their national conventions. Specified support includes limited air and ground

transportation, communications, medical assistance, administrative support, and security support.

Support is provided under the following conditions: (1) the Service Secretary concerned has

approved the support in advance; (2) the support is provided in conjunction with training in

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appropriate military skills; and (3) support can be provided within existing funds otherwise

available to the Service Secretary concerned, i.e., O&M.

6. Homeless Individuals

10 U.S.C. § 2556 allows DoD to provide incidental services to shelter homeless individuals. These

incidental services include utilities, bedding, security, transportation, renovation of facilities, minor

repairs to make facility available, and property liability insurance. Support is on a non-

reimbursable basis and may not have an adverse impact on military readiness or interfere with

military operations.

L. Loan or Lease of Non-Excess Property of a Military Department¹⁰

1. Authorized Loan or Lease of Non-Excess Property

Generally, the Economy Act, 10 U.S.C. § 1535, governs the loan of DoD material to other federal

agencies. DoD may provide supplies and equipment to other federal agencies on a reimbursable

basis. The leasing statute, 10 U.S.C. § 2667, governs the lease of DoD property to organizations

outside the government when a determination has been made that: (1) for the period of the lease, the

materiel is not needed for public use; (2) it is not excess property; and (3) the lease will promote the

national defense or be in the public interest.

The Army is the only service that has a regulation governing the loan or lease of its materiel: AR

700-131. Army Policy is that Army materiel is intended for the Army mission. Army material will

only be loaned or leased under compelling circumstances and when the material sought is not

otherwise needed for mission requirements. Agencies loaning or leasing materiel from an Army

activity are responsible for all costs associated with the loan or lease to include shipping, return, and

repair of the materiel. Loans and leases are primarily approved on the basis of their purpose and

duration. The following factors will be considered in determining whether to approve a loan or

lease:

• Military requirements and priorities;

• Stocks and programmed Army requirements;

• Type classification with pending changes;

• Minimum diversion of Army stocks;

• The adequacy of the borrower’s resources; and

• The availability of commercial resources such as commercial lessors.

The approval authority for a loan or lease of Army materiel varies based on the category of

equipment being requested. Table 2-1, AR 700-131 provides a comprehensive list of the categories

of equipment that may be loaned or leased, and the proper approval authority. Army material

loaned or leased in response to a natural or manmade disaster will be reported to JDOMS as soon as

possible. The property officer who is accountable for the equipment loaned or leased will keep all

records of loans of DoD material. Loans are made at no additional cost to the government.

10 U.S.C. § 2667; U.S. DEP’T OF ARMY, REG. 700-131, LOAN, LEASE, AND DONATION OF ARMY MATERIEL (23 Aug.

2004); U.S. DEP’T OF ARMY, REG. 725-1, SPECIAL AUTHORIZATION AND PROCEDURES FOR ISSUES, SALES, AND LOANS

(17 Oct. 2003).

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Borrowers are responsible for all incremental costs (costs above the normal Army operating

expenses) and these will be identified and added into the loan agreement.

Agencies loaning or leasing materiel from an Army activity are responsible for all costs associated

with the loan or lease to include shipping, return, and repair of the materiel. Reimbursable

incremental costs include the following:

• Any overtime pay and pay of additional civilian personnel required to accompany, operate,

maintain, or safeguard borrowed equipment;

• Travel and per diem expenses of Army personnel (military and civilian);

• Packing, crating, handling, and shipping from supply source to destination and return, to include

port loading and off loading;

• All transportation, including return for repair and renovation;

• Hourly rate for the use of Army aircraft;

• Petroleum, oils, and lubricants (including aviation fuel);

• The cost of material lost, destroyed, or damaged beyond economical repair;

• Utilities (gas, water, heat, and electricity);

• Any modification or rehabilitation or real property that affects its future use by the Army;

• Overhaul of returned material;

• Repair parts used in maintenance and renovation;

• Price decline of borrowed stock fund material at which returned property can be sold;

• Issue and turn-in inspection labor costs;

• Charges for the use of vehicles, except POL and per diem costs; and

• Use of real property.

It is important to note that in addition to the above reimbursable costs, leases require the borrower

to pay a lease fee equal to the fair market value of the lease interest in the property.

2. Emergency Exceptions

Emergency loans or leases are those made to prevent “loss of life, grave bodily harm, or major

destruction of property, and when the lack of communications facilities prevents the use of normal

procedures.” Emergency loans and leases will not be withheld because a formal reimbursement

agreement has not been negotiated and concluded. Additionally, loans or leases that would

otherwise be permitted by service regulations may be approved under emergency conditions at the

local level, vice the approval level designated in Table 2-1 of AR 700-131. Emergency requests for

the loan or lease of Army materiel may be made verbally or electronically. The borrower must send

a formal written request to the lending agency as soon as possible, and must complete a loan or

lease agreement within five days of the original transaction.

Leases carry additional requirements under AR 700-131. Army materiel will not be leased if a

reasonable counterpart can be purchased or leased in the commercial market. Leases are limited to

a maximum five-year term unless the Secretary of the Army (SECARMY), or one of his designees,

approves an extended lease term. The SECARMY also has the authority to revoke a loan or a lease

at any time. Lessees must post a surety bond to cover damage or loss of the leased property and, if

necessary, show proof of either vehicular or hull insurance. In an emergency a lease may be made

without a bond, but the bond must be posted within five days of the lease. FAR Part 28 governs the

bonding requirements. The SECARMY must approve any bond forfeiture. Bonds are normally

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forfeited when the materiel is not returned at the end of the lease period or the lessee refuses to pay

for damage or other lease expenses.

Once a loan or lease is approved, a loan or lease agreement will be entered into before the materiel

is delivered. The agreement will reflect the statutory basis for the loan or lease, and will describe in

detail all terms of the loan or lease and the responsibilities of both parties. The official accountable

for the property of the borrowing activity must sign the loan or lease agreement. The loan or lease

agreement will be held by the activity that issues the material until final settlement. When DoD has

made a lease of personal property, the costs associated with the lease are placed into a special

account established for the respective defense agency whose property is subject to the lease.

Amounts in the account are available solely for maintenance, repair, restoration or replacement of

leased personal property.

M. Military Assistance to Safety and Traffic¹¹

Under the MAST program, DoD provides aerial MEDEVAC to civilian communities who have no

comparable services or until such time as they can be established. The participating command pays

for the funding of the program, i.e., it comes out of unit O&M funds. Also, participation in the

MAST program shall not cause an increase in the funding required to operate the unit. The

appropriate state or local officials will provide special equipment and/or radios necessary to

participate in the program at no cost to the U.S. Government. U.S. Government officials will

provide supervision and technical assistance for the installation of radio equipment. Non-DoD

physicians, nurses, and emergency medical personnel may be transported in conjunction with a

MAST mission. Normally, one next-of-kin may be transported if necessary for the best interests of

the patient. Any other transportation of non-DoD personnel is governed by service regulations.

N. Explosive Ordnance Disposal¹²

Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) is the detection, identification, field evaluation, rendering-

safe, recovery, and final disposition of unexploded explosive ordnance (UXO). AR 75-14, para. 3f.

Explosive Ordnance Disposal operations outside of DoD installations are primarily the

responsibility of civil authorities. DoD may provide EOD assistance, in the form of EOD actions

and/or advice, upon request from federal agencies or civil authorities at any level, when the service

concerned determines that such assistance is required or desirable in the interest of public safety.

AR 75-14, para. 7b(3). Each service is responsible for all self-caused Explosive Ordnance

contamination on its own installations and operation basses. AR 75-14, para. 7d(3)(a). EOD

assistance involving formerly used defense sites (FUDS) will be funded from the Environment

Restoration Accounts. AR 75-14, para. 7d(3)(e). Services must request reimbursement for EOD

services rendered for non-DoD incidents from the requesting agency. AR 75-15, para. 3-2d.

¹¹ U.S. DEP’T OF DEFENSE, DIR. 3025.1-M, DOD MANUAL FOR CIVIL EMERGENCIES (Apr. 2001).

¹² U.S. DEP’T OF ARMY, REG. 75-14/U.S. DEP’T OF NAVY, INSTR. 8027.1G/MARINE CORPS ORDER 8027.1D/U.S. DEP’T

OF AIR FORCE, REG. 136-8, INTERSERVICE RESPONSIBILITIES FOR EXPLOSIVE ORDNANCE DISPOSAL (14 Feb. 1992); U.S.

DEP’T OF ARMY, REG. 75-15, RESPONSIBILITIES AND PROCEDURES FOR EXPLOSIVE ORDNANCE (1 Nov. 1978).

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O. Military Working Dogs¹³

Military working dogs include patrol dogs, and patrol dogs with specialized training in either

narcotic/contraband detection, or explosive detection. Explosive Detector Dogs team assistance

may be provided to federal agencies or civil authorities. Upon a request from a federal agency or

state or local civilian authority at any level, the installation commander concerned makes a

determination that such assistance is required in the interest of public safety. AR 190-12, para. 4

11a(1). Requests for assistance may only be honored from civilian authorities, not private citizens.

AR 190-12, para. 4-11b(1). Requesting agencies must agree to meet reimbursement requirements

and utilize DD Form 1926 (Explosive Ordnance Disposal Civil Release and Reimbursement

Agreement). AR 190-12, para. 4-11b(2).

P. Miscellaneous Support¹⁴

To respond to an emergency involving biological or chemical weapons of mass destruction that is

beyond the capabilities of the civil authorities to handle, the Secretary of the Department of

Homeland Security may request DoD assistance directly. Available assistance would include

monitoring, containing, disabling, and disposing of the weapon. Regulations required by the

statute, which would implement this authority, have not yet been promulgated. For weapons of

mass destruction, federal funding is provided to DoD to develop and maintain domestic terrorism

rapid response teams to aid federal, state, and local officials and responders. There are currently

thirty-seven response teams, composed of full time Army and Air National Guard members. These

teams are federally resourced, trained, evaluated, and operating under federal doctrine. They

perform their missions, however, primarily under the command and control of state governors. If

the teams are federalized, they fall under the command and control of Joint Task Force, Civil

Support (JTF-CS).

Q. Miscellaneous Exceptions

DoDD 5525.5, Encl. 4, para. E,4.1.2., contains a list of situations containing express authorization

for the use of military forces to enforce the civil law. Among them are protection of the President,

Vice President, and other dignitaries, assistance in the case of crimes against members of Congress,

foreign officials, or involving nuclear materials.

¹³ U.S. DEP’T OF DEFENSE, DIR. 5200.31E, SINGLE MANAGER FOR DOD WORKING DOGS PROGRAM (29 Mar. 2006);

U.S. DEP’T OF ARMY, REG. 190-12, MILITARY WORKING DOGS (4 Jun. 2007).

10 U.S.C. §§ 379, 382; Defense Against Weapons of Mass Destruction Act (Nunn-Lugar-Domenici Act); Pub. L.

104-201; DoDDS-5210.36.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 - THE ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT

101 General Description

1-1

102 Limits of Arctic Lands

1-3

103 Permafrost and Terrain

1-3

104 Permanent Land Ice

1-5

105 Beaches and Cliffs

1-8

106 Details of Coastaltopography

1-9

CHAPTER 2 - CLIMATE

201 Introduction

2-1

202 Air Pressure

2-3

203 Principal Tracks of Cyclones and Synoptic Systems

2-6

204 Wind

2-7

205 Temperature

2-7

206 Fog and Visibility

2-9

207 Cloud

2-10

208 Precipitation

2-10

CHAPTER 3 - OCEANOGRAPHY

301 Definition

3-1

302 Bathymetry

3-1

303 Water Masses

3-3

304 Currents

3-4

305 Advection Boundaries

3-6

306 Western North American Waters

3-8

307 Eastern North American Waters (North of a Line, Resolution Island - Kap Farvel)

3-8

308 Northeast Atlantic Waters

3-11

309 Eurasian Coastal Waters

3-14

310 Eastern Siberian Coastal Waters

3-16

311 Central Polar Basin

3-17

312 Arctic Ocean Fronts

3-23

CHAPTER 4 - SEA ICE

401 Introduction

4-1

402 Ice Formation

4-3

403 Structure and Properties of Sea Ice

4-3

404 Annual Ice Cycle

4-4

405 Occurrence of Sea Ice

4-5

406 Ice Forecasting

4-5

407 Other Ice Encountered at Sea

4-6

CHAPTER 5 - GENERAL PREPARATIONS FOR ARCTIC OPERATIONS

501 General

5-1

502 Topside Preparations

5-1

503 Ship's Boats Preparation

5-3

504 Mooring Lines and Anchor Gear Preparations

5-4

505 Engineering Preparation

5-4

506 Towing Considerations

5-6

507 Ice Preparations/Considerations

5-6

508 Cargo Handling Considerations

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CHAPTER 6 - HULL, ENGINEERING AND ELECTRICAL

601 Cold-Weather Preparations

6-1

602 Exposed Piping and Scuppers

6-1

603 Hull Damage and Repair in the Ice

6-1

604 Stowage Space Requirements

6-2

605 Fresh Water Supply

6-2

606 Salt Water Supply

6-2

607 General Instructions For Machinery

6-3

608 Exposed Equipment

6-3

609 General Instructions

6-3

610 Insulation

6-4

611 Gas Cylinders

6-4

612 Batteries

6-4

613 Ship Cold Weather Soaking

6-5

614 Yellow Gear

6-6

615 Underway Replenishment

6-7

CHAPTER 7 - COMBAT SYSTEMS

701 Cold-Weather Preparations

7-1

702 Fire Control Radars

7-3

703 Recoil Mechanisms

7-3

704 Aircraft Guns

7-3

705 Gun Sights and Aircraft Fire Control Equipment

7-4

706 Bomb Sights and Bomb Directors

7-4

707 Ammunition

7-4

708 Lubricants

7-4

709 Torpedoes and Torpedo Tubes

7-4

710 Minesweeping Gear

7-5

CHAPTER 8 - ELECTRONICS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRONIC EMISSIONS

801 General Requirements

8-1

802 Exposed Electronic Equipment

8-1

803 Cold-Weather Preparations

8-2

804 Care of Equipment in Low Temperatures

8-4

805 Underwater Electronic Equipment

8-4

806 Portable Power Sources (For Electronic Equipment)

8-4

807 Maintianance (Personnel Precautions)

8-5

808 Communication Characteristics

8-5

809 Arctic Anomalies

8-6

CHAPTER 9 - PERSONNEL

901 Introduction

9-1

902 Training/Preparation

9-1

903 Food and Water

9-1

904 Cold-Weather Clothing

9-1

905 Personal Welfare

9-3

906 Frostbite

9-3

907 Treatment of Frostbite

9-5

908 Immersion Foot

9-6

909 Hypothermia

9-7

910 Snow-Blindness

9-8

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911 Hypoxia

9-8

912 Carbon-Monoxide Poisoning

9-8

913 Avoiding Cold-Weather Injuries

9-8

914 Dehydration

9-9

CHAPTER 10 - GENERAL OPERATIONS

1001 Ice-Breakers

10-1

1002 Ships

10-1

1003 Air-Cushion Vehicles

10-2

1004 Diving

10-2

CHAPTER 11 - SHIP HANDLING IN ICE AND ICE SEAMANSHIP

1101 Introduction

11-1

1102 Non-Ice-Strengthened Ships

11-1

1103 Indications of Ice

11-1

1104 Signs of Open Water

11-1

1105 Icebergs

11-2

1106 Entering the Ice

11-3

1107 Speed of Ships Working in Ice

11-3

1108 Working Through Ice

11-4

1109 Convoying in Ice

11-5

1110 Types of Convoy

11-5

1111 Distance Between Ships

11-6

1112 Course and Speed of Convoy

11-7

1113 Conducting Through Ice

11-7

1114 Signalling Between Ice-Breakers and Escorted Ships

11-8

1115 Stopped Ice-Breaker - Red Warning Lights and Sound Signal

11-8

1116 Breaking Out Ships

11-9

1117 Replenishment in Ice

11-9

1118 Anchoring

11-9

CHAPTER 12 - ARCTIC NAVIGATION, NAVIGATIONAL AIDS AND PILOTAGE

1201 General

12-1

1202 Charts and Sailing Directions

12-1

1203 General Reference Books

12-1

1204 Chart Projections

12-1

1205 Polar Grid

12-2

1206 Magnetic Compasses

12-3

1207 Gyro-Compasses

12-4

1208 Azimuths

12-4

1209 Celestial Compasses

12-4

1210 Dead Reckoning

12-4

1211 Astronomical Observations

12-5

1212 Sunrise, Sunset and Twilight Phenomena

12-5

1213 Abnormal Refraction

12-5

1214 Echo-Sounder

12-6

1215 Electronic Aids To Navigation

12-7

1216 Radar As a Fixing Aid

12-7

1217 Radar and Sonar for Ice Detection

12-8

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 13 - ARCTIC AVIATION

1301 Introduction

13-1

1302 Air Navigation

13-1

1303 Instruments

13-2

1304 Electronic Equipment

13-2

1305 Electrical

13-3

1306 Servicing Aircraft in Cold Temperatures

13-3

1307 Refuelling

13-3

1308 Oil Replenishment

13-4

1309 Cold Starting Piston Engines

13-4

1310 Engine Lubrication

13-4

1311 Piston Engine Shut-Down and Restarting

13-5

1312 External Heating

13-5

1313 Propellers

13-5

1314 Cold Starting Jet Engines

13-5

1315 Low-Temperature Fuel Combustion

13-6

1316 Airframes

13-6

1317 Flight-Deck Preparations

13-7

1318 Flight Operations

13-8

1319 Pre-Flight

13-8

1320 Preparation for Flight

13-9

1321 Anti-Icing/De-Icing

13-9

1322 Rotary-Wing Aircraft Operations

13-10

1323 Fixed-Wing Ski Operation

13-10

CHAPTER 14 - SUBMARINE AND ANTISUBMARINE OPERATIONS

1401 Material Readiness

14-1

1402 Under-Ice Procedures

14-2

1403 Preparations for Surfacing in Pack-Ice

14-2

1404 Surfacing Techniques

14-3

1405 Diving in An Ice Area

14-4

1406 Detection Capabilities

14-4

1407 Ambient Noise in the Arctic

14-4

1408 Acoustic Signal Propagation

14-5

1409 Shallow Water Limitations on Submarines

14-7

CHAPTER 15 - AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS IN THE ARCTIC

1501 Introduction

15-1

1502 Marginal Ice Areas

15-1

1503 Marginal Ice Operations

15-2

1504 Low Surf and Swell

15-2

1505 Effects of Terrain on Amphibious Assaults

15-2

1506 Effects of Climate and Weather

15-3

1507 Air Operations Considerations

15-4

1508 NBC Operations

15-5

1509 Shipboard Considerations

15-6

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1 Boundaries of the Arctic and Subarctic Environments

1-4

Figure 1-2 Chamberain Glacier Entering Wolstenholme Fiord (Northwest Greenland)

1-7

Figure 1-3 Contemporary Arctic Glaciers (Shaded areas are glaciated)

1-9

Figure 1-4 Ice--Shove Ridges, Nansen Sound, Northern Canada

1-10

Figure 1-5 The Labrador Coast

1-10

Figure 2-1 Observing Stations

2-2

Figure 2-2 Mean Sea-Level Pressure-January

2-4

Figure 2-3 Mean Sea-Level Pressure - July

2-5

Figure 2-4 Principal Tracks of Cyclones-January

2-6

Figure 3-1 Arctic Ocean: Bathymetry

3-2

Figure 3-2 Composite Surface Circulation

3-5

Figure 3-3 Composite Atlantic Layer Circulation

3-7

Figure 3-4 Water Masses--Norwegian and Adjacent Seas

3-15

Figure 3-5 Physiographic Regions of the Arctic Ocean and Adjacent Seas

3-19

Figure 3-6 Topographic Profile Across the Arctic Ocean

3-20

Figure 3-7 Earthquakes in the Arctic, January '55--March '64

3-22

Figure 3-8 General Position of Ocean Fronts

3-28

Figure 3-9 Fronts in the Norwegian Sea

3-29

Figure 4-1 Floe Size

4-2

Figure 4-2 General Pattern of Ice Movement in the Arctic Ocean

4-7

Figure 4-3 Egg Code Symbology

4-8

Figure 4-4 (Sheet 1 of 6) Summer Ice Limit Charts

4-9

Figure 4-5 (Sheet 1 of 3) Winter Ice Limit Charts

4-15

Figure 4-6 General Drift Pattern of Atlantic Icebergs

4-18

Figure 4-7 Pacific Ocean Icebergs

4-19

Figure 5-1 The Most Recent Nomograms (Overland et al. 1986)

5-11

Figure 12-1 Polar Grid Navigation

12-2

Figure 14 1 Propagation Loss ill the Greenland Sea

14-8

(April)

14-8

Figure 16-1 Survival Chart

16-1

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1-1 Arctic Land Environment

1-3

(by political units)

1-3

Table 2-1 Observing Station Location

2-3

(See Figure 2-1)

2-3

Table 2-2 (Sheet 1 of 3) Arctic Region Weather Trends

2-12

Table 3-1 Temperature and Salinity Characteristics of the Water Masses

of the European and American Arctic and Subarctic Seas

3-14

Table 5-1 Ice Removal Equipment

5-9

Table 5-2 De-icing Materials

5-10

Table 16-1 Wind - Chill Temperatures Chart (°C)

16-4

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CHAPTER 1

THE ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT

101 GENERAL DESCRIPTION

1. For the purposes of this manual, the term "Arctic" will be used to indicate the terrestrial basin

which is filled by the Arctic or Polar Ocean. "Arctic" will also include the seas contiguous to the

Arctic Ocean, shores surrounding these seas, and in some cases the navigable rivers which flow into

these seas and the Arctic Ocean. The criteria commonly used for defining the Arctic regions are

discussed below.

2. The word Arctic is a derivation of the Greek word "Bear", which connotes that area lying under

the "Big Dipper". Astronomically it is the whole area lying north of 66° 33' N (the Arctic Circle). If

this definition is used, some areas of temperate climate are included and some areas of very

intemperate climate excluded.

3. Some scientists have suggested that the boundary of the Arctic be defined northward of the

isotherm in which the average temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C. This closely

coincides with the tree-line. Because it is peculiarly a polar phenomenon, the auroral zone has also

been advanced as a criterion for a geophysical definition of the Arctic. The Aurora Borealis, observed

in high latitudes as a luminous circumpolar feature, is centred about a point where the geomagnetic

pole intersects the earth surface, and its zone of maximum frequency of occurrence can extend south

as far as Fort Churchill.

4. The US Army's definition, accepted by the quadripartite countries, is: that portion of the northern

hemisphere characterized by having an average temperature of less than

0°C and an average

temperature of the warmest month of less than 10øC. This roughly coincides with the southern

boundary of the zone of discontinuous permafrost.

5. Oceanographers consider the Arctic to be that region in which only pure "Arctic water" is found at

the surface, at or near 0°C, and with a salinity of approximately 30 parts per thousand. This water is

formed by a combination of:

a. Water from the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

b. Water drained from surrounding land areas.

c. Water resulting from the melting of sea ice.

The most important feature is that this water flows out of the Arctic Ocean on the surface, along the

east coast of Greenland, through the Arctic Islands, spreading over Foxe Basin and Baffin Bay, and is

carried as far south as Newfoundland by the Labrador current. Using this as a criterion, a line can be

drawn north of which all waters may be considered as Arctic waters and which encompasses much of

the Subarctic and Arctic, but which excludes the northern coasts of Norway and the Barents Sea.

6. For the mariner, the most significant factors to be taken into account are latitude and the extent of

the so-called "Arctic waters". For land operations, the line of discontinuous permafrost is the principal

boundary to be considered (See Figure 1-1).

1-1

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7. Over most of the Arctic, and in particular the Arctic Ocean, minimum winter air temperatures

range between-45°C and-48°C, which is comparable to Winnipeg. The coldest temperatures in the

northern hemisphere are found not in the Arctic but in the subarctic latitudes.

8. Generally speaking, throughout most of the Arctic (except in the coastal areas which come under

the influence of maritime climatic systems), in Labrador, northern Norway and Kamchatka,

precipitation is so low that "desert" conditions prevail. Precipitation falls during the summer months as

a fine rain and is prevented from sinking into the ground by permafrost, the surface in summer can

usually be found to be wet.

9. The main body of the Arctic Ocean is covered year-round with pack-ice which is continually on

the move. It is due to this constant movement of the ice that, even in winter, coverage of the Arctic

Ocean is not complete. Ice coverage in winter is about 90 percent, decreasing in the summer to 70 to

80 percent, and in some coastal areas even less. The fringing seas become in summer either ice--free

or greatly reduced in ice concentration, with the exception of the northwest part of the Canadian

Archipelago where the ice usually remains fast from coast to coast.

10. Vegetation in the Arctic

a. The vegetation of the Arctic falls into two main divisions in the Arctic and Subarctic: tundra

and forest. Although the individual plant species involved may vary considerably from area to

area, the type and form of vegetation is remarkably uniform, and it is this consistent association of

vegetation with climate that makes it possible to speak of the Arctic as a single region in spite of

all other variations.

b. The chief characteristic of the tundra is the absence of trees. Tundra comprises creeping

shrubs, grass-like plants, and mosses. Several zones are recognized, grading from north to south,

from almost barren ground to fairly dense growth with small shrubs several feet high.

c. The forest is the coniferous boreal or taiga, with larch (tamarack) and spruce as the dominant

species in the Canadian Arctic, and a maximum of birch in the USSR. Generally speaking, the

whole forest area is interspersed with low wetland, known in Canada as muskeg". By definition,

muskeg consists of more than 15 cm of organic material overlying mineral soils". It may assume

several forms such as "perched", "confined", or "continuous", and may include woody material

(trees) up to 15 cm in diameter. These trees always develop a tuft at the top and are seldom more

than 4 m in height; therefore, muskegs are readily recognizable in the wooded areas. Where

muskegs have developed on permafrost, the trees may lean in all directions due to frost heaving.

When in this condition, they are often referred to as "drunken forests", particularly in the USSR.

11. Generally speaking, in the Arctic, the tropopause (the level at which the fall of temperature with

height ceases or reverses sign) is lower than in the tropics. The height of the tropopause varies

seasonally in the Arctic from 7 km in February to 10 km in August. There is a sharp separation from

the tropical tropopause at about 45°N and this separation is usually the region of the jet stream. The

characteristics of the stratosphere above the Arctic tropopause are such that in winter a giant westerly

vortex forms around the geographic pole, reaching maximum intensity in February and disappearing

rapidly, forming in turn an equally vast but slow-moving easterly vortex in mid-summer. These

features of the Arctic tropopause and stratosphere constitute yet another geographical definition of the

Arctic, and one which is significant for certain operational requirements.

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Table 1-1 Arctic Land Environment

(by political units)

km2

Canada

3 100 000

Greenland

1 175 000

Iceland

105 000

Other North Atlantic

62 000

Islands

Continental Scandinavia

18 000

USA (Alaska)

545 000

USSR

2 055 000

102 LIMITS OF ARCTIC LANDS

The core of the polar regions is conveniently defined as the lands and seas around the Polar Basin,

itself centred roughly on the North Pole. When considering Arctic land areas alone, the southern limits

of the Arctic are probably most usefully demarcated by the tree-line. Although this boundary is not

ideal, particularly in mountainous areas, it marks a real break between the high winds (and wind--chill)

and driving snow of the barren grounds, that are usually underlain by continuous permafrost, and the

milder conditions prevailing in the forests to the south. When this definition is in effect, for

physiographic purposes three northern countries - Canada - Greenland and the USSR - contain nearly

90 percent of the so-called Arctic Lands.

103 PERMAFROST AND TERRAIN

1. Mean annual air temperatures below-2°C lead to subsoil temperatures that are permanently below

freezing point. If the ground beneath the annual surface thawing zone, known as the active layer,

remains below freezing point for more than two years, permafrost conditions are said to prevail.

Permafrost has an important influence on Arctic soils, land--forms and vegetation, and affects the

whole pattern of life in northern areas.

2. Where mean annual air temperatures below -2°C prevail, permanently frozen ground is found

everywhere except beneath the largest lakes and rivers. In general, above the tree-line, permafrost is

continuous except in certain coastal areas. Continuous permafrost is therefore a phenomenon primarily

of continental Arctic areas. Where winter temperatures in the Arctic average about -2°C, as they do in

the Aleutians, Iceland, coastal south Greenland and northern Scandinavia, and in the sub-arctic forests,

areas of permafrost are separated by unfrozen ground and the permafrost is said then to be

discontinuous. This zone extends farthest south in the eastern interior of continents and approaches the

Gulf of St. Lawrence in eastern Quebec, and northern Korea in East Asia. In Arctic continental areas,

permafrost is commonly from 300-500 m deep. However, greater depths of up to 600 m have been

found in the northern USSR and there is some evidence that permafrost may be up to 1500 m deep in a

few Siberian areas.

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3. From an engineering point of view, the critical part of the permafrost is the active layer close to the

surface where freezing and thawing occurs. It varies considerably in thickness and is dependent on

site, exposure, soil drainage and vegetation. In the high Arctic at poorly drained sites, the active layer

may be less than 10 cm, whereas near the southern margins of permafrost, in favourable localities, it

may be 2 to 3 m thick at the end of the summer. The maximum depth of the active layer under most

favourable conditions may be in excess of 4 m. The chief significance of this layer is that moisture

content is often abnormally high, which creates serious problems for construction engineers and also,

in some cases, completely inhibits summer ground mobility.

4. Many other landforms are found only in northern areas. One striking feature in these areas is the

vast quantity of shattered bedrock lying on the surface and covering the valley sides. This broken

bedrock results from frost shattering.

5. The presence of ground ice leads also to unusual landforms. Ground ice exists in most areas where

there is permafrost, occurring as ice in the soil pores, and as veins, wedges and sheets. The most

spectacular ground ice occurs on the coasts of central and eastern Arctic Siberia where massive

occurrences of ice, up to 70 m in thickness, have been reported. Elsewhere in the Arctic, particularly in

the presence of silts, and especially in deltaic areas, ice mounds may develop covered either by

organic or by mineral soils. These mounds vary in height from a few centimetres to more than 50 m,

and are known as "pingos". They are generally found in the Siberian river deltas, the Mackenzie delta,

and the coastal plains of northern Alaska and Siberia.

6. If a change in the environment takes place resulting in the melting of the ground ice, hollows with

uneven topography known as "thermokarst" form. Tundra ponds also develop when ground ice melts.

7. A conspicuous feature of the terrain in Arctic areas is the tendency for soils to develop regular

textural patterns. The term "patterned ground" includes all such features that occur in vegetation and

soils, on horizontal and on sloping ground. It is caused primarily by a complex process of sorting of

the materials comprising the soil, due to the freeze--thaw cycle, or by the development of regular

hexagonal patterns due to the thermal contraction of the active layer.

8. The surface layers of the soil often become supersaturated with water during the spring and

summer, and movement (which may be perceptible through a period of a few days) may occur on

gentle slopes. This phenomenon, known as solifluction, develops throughout the Arctic and results in

patterns which are usually called "soil glaciers". In mountainous regions, features known as "rock

glaciers" or "rock streams" sometimes occur, in which, instead of soil, boulders are in motion

"lubricated" by ground ice or a mixture of soil and ground ice.

9. Heavy snowfall is not common in the Arctic and, indeed, exceptionally heavy snowfalls are

restricted to mountainous and maritime areas. However, snow lies for long periods and has an

important influence on northern terrains. The killing effect of the wind, on vegetation during the

winter months, is reduced by a snow cover and in the southern Arctic the height of bushes is

commonly controlled by the depth of the snowfall.

104 PERMANENT LAND ICE

1. Less than 5 percent of the Arctic lands are covered with permanent ice. (See Figure 1--3.) Green-

land is the only area where glaciers totally dominate the land, and an ice sheet comparable to the great

ice--caps of the glacial periods, 6000 to 12 000 years ago, survives. The main Greenland ice-cap is

nearly 2400 km from north to south and is roughly 1100 km across at its widest. Beyond the confines

of Greenland, the ice sheet has a significant influence on the climate of some of the northern

circumpolar lands and is the main source of icebergs in the northern seas. It has been estimated that if

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all the ice in the Greenland ice sheet melted, the level of the world's oceans would rise by 6.5 m.

Greenland has the shape of an elongated basin surrounded by a mountain rim, which is highest and

widest along the eastern side. The interior of the rock basin is close to sealevel on the average, while

nearly a third of its total area (500 000 km2) is below sealevel. Inland from the coast the first hundred

kilometres of ice is often crevassed and, particularly along the east coast, there are "nunataks" where

the underlying mountains break through the ice sheet. Further inland the crevasses disappear and the

smooth, gentle slopes of the icecap prevail. In the interior, the ice sheet reaches over 3000 m. Great ice

streams flow from this source through gaps in the mountain walls to the sea. (See Figure 1--2.)

2. The distribution of the remainder of the glaciers in Arctic North America is closely related to

topography and moisture supply. In Arctic Canada, glaciers occur plentiful north of Hudson Strait, and

the most southerly icecaps occur geographically in three groups. The most southerly group (which are

really semi-permanent snowfields) is in the Torngat Mountains of Labrador. Permanent ice is more

plentiful north of Hudson Strait, and the most southerly icecaps occur on the uplands on both sides of

Frobisher. Larger ice-caps, often completely submerging the underlying mountains, are found on

Baffin Island north of Cumberland Sound, on Bylot lsland, East Devon Island, and in three southern

sectors of Ellesmere Island.

3. A second group of Canadian glaciers are adjacent to the Arctic Ocean in northern Ellesmere Island

and on Axel Heiberg Island. The third group consists of the four small icecaps on Melville Island. The

remaining glaciers of Canada are found in the western mountain ranges and are not strictly in

character.

4. In Alaska there is an important difference between the small number of Arctic glaciers of the

Brooks Range and the Romanozov Mountains, and the vast glacier systems on the mountains adjacent

to the Pacific Ocean, including the border ranges between Alaska and the Yukon, the Aleutian Range,

and smaller glaciers of the Alaska Peninsula.

5. Snowfall is not as heavy on the northwestern side of the Pacific Ocean, and glaciers are restricted

to the Kamchatka Peninsula.

6. The North Atlantic Ocean and the Norwegian Sea constitute a major source of moisture for Arctic

glaciers in Scandinavia. This moisture is carried by the winds as far as north-central Siberia (the

Urals), and wherever there is sufficient relief there are small icecaps. However, the mainland of the

Russian Arctic outside the Urals has no permanent ice and neither do the eastern islands of

northeastern Siberia, excepting Bennett Island. In Scandinavia, permanent ice is restricted to the

highest land, normally in excess of 2000 m. The altitude of glaciation becomes progressively lower in

a northeastward direction, until it is below 500 m on the Severnaya Zemlya Islands.

7. A large expanse of ice covers Iceland, where the largest glacier is Vatnajokull. The other large

glaciers are all in the southeastern or central parts of the island. North of Iceland, Jan Mayen Island

supports an icecap, but Bear Island farther northeast is much lower and has no permanent ice. There

are numerous glaciers in Svalbard, and Northeast Land is largely covered with thin plateau ice. Other

islands around the Barents Sea, including the northern third of Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land and

Severnaya Zemlya all carry large ice -caps.

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105 BEACHES AND CLIFFS

1. Arctic littoral processes in ice-free summer months do not differ greatly from those in temperate

latitudes. However, several distinctive processes are operative at break-up and freeze-up of sea ice.

2. Sea ice has, in general, a secondary role to waves as an agent in erosion, transportation, and

deposition. With the onset of winter, when air temperatures drop below freezing, an ice shelf (storm-

ice foot or ice rampart) commonly forms along Arctic beaches where there is a low tidal range. Water

from storm waves and spray freeze on the beach, leaving layers of ice-cemented gravel and ice. Sand

and gravel are often washed onto the developing ice shelf and become incorporated. This ice shelf

"armour" protects the beach against subsequent wave action and ice-shove. If the pack-ice should

move onshore early in the winter, shore-fast ice with adhering debris may be shoved inland onto the

beach. (See Figure 1-4.)

3. During the winter, shore-fast ice and offshore ice stop all wave action. Pack-ice at break-up, and

also later in the summer, may push onto the beach and even impinge against the sea cliff, if present.

Ice moving onto a beach tends to act either as a plow or a raft. Where plowing occurs, the ice planes

and pushes debris into mounds and ridges, usually below the upper limit of storm waves. Where

rafting occurs, debris frozen and incorporated in the ice may be transported onto the beach, locally

above the reach of storm waves. Usually, storm waves soon rework most of the transported material

and, by freeze-up, little evidence of it is visible; however, in the high Arctic bays and channels that are

permanently choked with ice, ice-pushed beach ramparts are a normal feature at the rear of beaches.

4. On coasts where the tidal range is considerable, boulder barricades are the most conspicuous sign

of the action of sea ice. Typically there is a narrow string of boulders parallel to the shore and several

hundred feet out. At low tide they are clearly visible above the water surface whereas at high tide they

are submerged. They represent a navigational danger on the approach to many open beaches.

Generally the depth of water increases rapidly beyond the boulder limit. The pushing and rafting of

boulders by the moving sea ice that forms the boulder barricades is also responsible for the

development of boulder-covered flats which are exposed at low tide near the heads of Arctic bays.

5. Cliffs of unconsolidated materials, which may rise to 30 m or more, front many miles of coast in

the Pacific area. The frozen sea cliffs retreat by undercutting, thermal erosion and slumping. The

greatest erosion occurs during storm surges. When there is a combination of a high water level and

strong waves, the slumped debris at the foot of the sea cliff may be removed and a notch 1.5 to 4.5 m

deep eroded into the cliff to produce an overhang in the frozen sediments, and this is followed by

sediment failure and retreat of the cliff face. Thermal erosion may also produce glacier-like mud

streams. Differential thermal erosion is particularly marked along coasts where large ice-wedges of

tundra polygons are present. Gullies selectively etch out the ice-wedges to produce indentations or

hanging valleys along the cliffs. In winter, the sea cliff and beach zone is an accumulation site for

large snowdrifts which persist and protect the cliff foot in early summer. Rapid slumping from above

may bury the snow-banks completely and some survive over the summer, thus adding additional

protection to the cliff foot for a second summer season. The type of sediment in the sea cliff tends to

be reflected in the number and size of adjacent beaches and bars. As a generalization, beach and bar

formation diminishes directly with reduction of grain size; icy muds may have no associated beach

and bar deposits.

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Figure 1-3 Contemporary Arctic Glaciers (Shaded areas are glaciated)

6. Offshore bars, bay-mouth bars, spits, tombolos, and other bar deposits are found along much of the

Arctic coasts. This is to be expected where offshore depths are modest and the supply of debris from

coastal recession and rivers is large. Offshore bars may parallel hundreds of miles of coast, being

separated from the coast by a lagoon perhaps several miles wide. Spits build out where there are

directional changes in the coast, in response to winds and currents. Driftwood and large logs may

become stranded on these bars and spits.

7. The main characteristics of the shores of Baffin Bay, Greenland, Spitzbergen and Norway are the

spectacular cliffs, which can be found in many sectors. (See Figure 1-5.). In the Precambrian Shield

areas, the majority of cliffs are preglacial, or, in the case of fiords, of glacial origin. These cliffs show

little evidence of strong contemporary erosion subaerially or by waves. In contrast, many of the cliffs

in younger sedimentary and igneous rocks, particularly in Svalbard and Iceland, have developed

massive postglacial scree slopes that are active today. In some parts of the Atlantic Arctic, notably

Scandinavia, a rock platform that varies in width up to several kilometres separates the cliffs from the

sea. This feature, known as the strandflat, may be drowned, thus forming a "skerry coast".

106 DETAILS OF COASTAL TOPOGRAPHY

Detailed descriptions of the Arctic coastline of the areas covered in this manual are contained in the

appropriate Sailing directions.

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CHAPTER 2

CLIMATE

201 INTRODUCTION

1. Knowledge of the Arctic climate and weather conditions has reached a fairly satisfactory state.

Coastal and island stations have been in operation for a period long enough to give statistical

information sufficient for a description of the regional climates. In addition, observing stations on ice

islands or on the pack-ice itself have, since 1950, contributed greatly to increased understanding of the

weather and climate over the Arctic Ocean. See Figure 2-1 and Table 2-1 for the locations of

observing stations.

2. Since much of the northern land surface is of low elevation, there is little obstruction to free

atmospheric flow between the middle latitudes and the Arctic. The areas of highest relief are

Greenland, Ellesmere and Baffin Islands in Canada, the Brooks and Alaska ranges in Alaska, and the

mountains of Scandinavia. The special and typical conditions met with in the Arctic are mainly those

resulting from:

a. The distinctive regime of daylight and darkness together with low solar elevation which result

in a prolonged period of radiational loss from the surface;

b. The high reflectivity of the surface as long as snow remains on the ground; and

c. The low moisture content of the air in winter in many areas of the Arctic, because of the ice

cover on lakes and ocean.

3. The wetness, warmth, roughness, relief and albedo (reflectivity) of the earth's surface are among

the major determinants of weather and climate. The stability of the air changes with the characteristics

of the underlying surface. Cooling produces a stable stratification and a shallow layer of modified air,

while heating from below steepens the temperature lapse rate and causes instability.

4. The roughness, texture, wetness and color of the Arctic landscape change little within each of the

two seasons but vary markedly from summer to winter. The generally ice-covered Arctic Ocean is

probably the most important of these surfaces, because of size alone (14 million km2), but the

Greenland Inland Ice and the tundra lands of North America and Eurasia are also regions of active air

mass modification in both seasons. Finally, smaller areas of permanent ice and snow cover exercise

local influences. There are roughly 52 000 km2 of glaciers and icecaps in the USSR, 130 000 km2 in

northern Canada, and 57 000 km2 in the Svalbard Archipelago.

5. The extension of polar sea ice is smallest in September, when it covers approximately 7.8 million

km2, and greatest in March (approximately 15.6 million km2, or nearly 11 percent of the sea area of

the northern hemisphere). The neighboring seas are also frozen in March. The Hudson Bay and

Hudson Strait add nearly 1.3 million km2 to the ice-covered surface in winter, and the Bering Sea, Sea

of Okhotsk, White Sea and the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland and St. Lawrence form southern fringe areas

of a snow- and ice-covered polar cap. Thus the polar cap extends south of 60øN everywhere except in

the North Atlantic region, and in the Norwegian and Barents Seas where Atlantic water enters the

Polar Basin and submerges to form the intermediate layer of Atlantic water in the Arctic Ocean.

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Table 2-1 Observing Station Locations

(See Figure 2-1)

202 AIR PRESSURE

1. Winter. The distribution of mean sea-level pressure for January is illustrated in Figure 2-2. The

circulation is dominated by four large cells two continental highs and two oceanic lows. The large,

semi-permanent Siberian high is joined to a smaller high over the Mackenzie Valley (1023 mbar) by

an elongated ridge across the Arctic Ocean. The Iceland low (994 mbar) controls the mean circulation

along and over northern Scandinavia and the sea areas on the Eurasian side of the Pole. An elongated

trough follows the open water and runs from Iceland north of Norway to Novaya Zemlya and the

Chelyuskin Peninsula. Another trough covers Baffin Bay. Both troughs are actually the scene of

frequent cyclonic activity. The remaining cell is the smaller Aleutian low. The circulation over the

Pole itself is largely dominated by the cyclonic flow around the Icelandic low. There is no "Arctic

high" on the January mean map, as stipulated by older theories for the Arctic Ocean, although strong

anticyclones are common over the Basin. The "Polar easterlies" exist, in winter, in the mean flow only

over the Norwegian-Barents Sea area and along the north flank of the Aleutian low. Because of the

extreme asymmetry and eccentricity of the sea -level pressure field, no single latitude circle shows any

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appreciable integrated easterly flow. Over the central Arctic Ocean, the main air stream in January is

directed from the middle and western Siberian coast towards the Pole and thence, southward across the

Greenland-Svalbard area. On the Bering Strait side of the Pole the Siberian air masses cross the Polar

Ocean and invade the Canadian Archipelago, mixing with air from the Alaskan-Yukon area. Over the

regions of elevated topography, the pressure gradients are fictitious, as for example over Greenland

where the surface winds are not accurately depicted by the pressure map.

Figure 2-2 Mean Sea-Level Pressure-January

2. Spring and Summer. The January pattern generally persists into March. Thereafter the mean

pressure field undergoes rapid change. There is pronounced weakening of the low cells and of the

Siberian continental high, and a relative intensification of high pressure over the Arctic Ocean. It is in

the spring that strong anticyclonic activity is most likely to occur over the central Arctic, and it is at

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this time that the concept of a "Polar anticyclone" is most nearly fulfilled. In summer (Figure 2-3), the

mean pressure gradient over the central Arctic Ocean is relatively weak. A closed anticyclone is found

over the edge of the Arctic Ocean covering the Barents Sea (1013 mbar), while a weak ridge is located

over the Beaufort Sea (1013 mbar). The Aleutian low diminishes to a feeble trough in summer, and the

Icelandic low is also weak (1010 mbar). The Siberian high disappears completely and is replaced by a

thermal low-pressure area over the heated Asiatic land mass. The July mean pressure map thus shows

a feeble pattern with a sluggish resultant mean flow. The prevailing air currents over the Eurasian

coast are directed from the Arctic Basin to the coast, with a marked easterly component, so that on the

Siberian coast the winds are generally ENE, while on the coast westward of 90øE the prevailing wind

is from the NE.

Figure 2-3 Mean Sea-Level Pressure - July

3. Autumn. By October the pressure patterns show a superficial resemblance to the spring

conditions. Relatively high pressure occurs over the central Arctic Ocean and the sub-polar lows are

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2. Over the Polar Basin, many cyclones spiral in toward the Pole. Storms breaking off the Icelandic

low usually move northeast to the Norwegian-Barents Sea and a primary track continues along 75øN.

These frequent storms play an important part in the climate of the north European and Siberian

coastlands. This primary track is joined by tracks from the Baltic, Black and Caspian Seas. Some

storms stagnate near Novaya Zemlya, others regenerate and curve in towards the Pole.

3. There is a difference in the climatic importance of synoptic weather systems when the middle

latitudes are compared with the Arctic Ocean. In the former regions, synoptic systems control the

weather and climate by an ever-changing sequence of different air masses. Over the Arctic Basin in

winter, cyclonic patterns generally do not influence the surface climate except so far as they control

mixing in the inversion layer. Warm and cold spells in temperate latitudes are most often air mass

phenomena (advection); over the Arctic Ocean cold spells are generally caused by radiation, not by

advection, while milder surface conditions require vertical transport downward of warmer air from

above the inversion. Sporadic invasions of warm maritime air do occur, however, sometimes into the

Arctic Basin.

4. Frontal development occurs in summer, mainly along the continental coasts. Strong temperature

contrasts develop because of the different absorption of solar radiation by land and ice. The land

surface warms appreciably, but the ice absorbs only a small part of the insolation and cannot warm

above the melting point. The summer storms generally develop in the continental coastal boundary but

are not confined to any narrow strip. A broad zone of thermal contrasts may sharpen into fronts, the

locations of which are determined both by the circulation and by the presence of heat sources and

sinks. Such summer frontal cyclones bring the heaviest precipitation to the Arctic Ocean. The fronts

are generally more distinct some distance above the surface. The cold air in contact with the ice often

masks the existing temperature differences, especially in summer when a uniform surface temperature

is found in all sectors. Above the surface layers, Arctic disturbances show similar features of cloud

distribution to the usual models of middle-latitude frontal-type cyclones.

204 WIND

1. Observations from drifting ice stations (Table 2-2) indicate that surface wind speeds over the

Arctic Ocean are not very high. On the average the force is 4 to 5 m/sec. When an inversion (increase

of temperature with height) is present, the surface layer is effectively isolated from the faster-moving

air above. It is this fact, in combination with the lack of topographic effects, which results in the low

number of occurrences of strong winds. Although light winds predominate, strong winds may occur

and persist for periods of one to three days. Wind speeds are critical in the Arctic because in addition

to the winds intensifying the feeling of cold, they are responsible for blowing snow-the major deterrent

to trave1 in winter

2. The annual mean wind speeds are greatest at exposed coastal stations near cyclone tracks, and it is

in these same locations that gales are most frequent (for example, at Jan Mayen, northern Norway to

Dikson Island and Bering Strait) (Table 2-2). On the other hand, at sheltered locations or those remote

from normal active storm tracks, the annual mean wind speeds are rather low (as at Eureka and

Aklavik).

205 TEMPERATURE

1. The most common misconception of the Arctic is that the land areas are covered with eternal ice

and snow and that there is everlasting winter with intense cold. A large part of Greenland is a striking

example of an ice-covered land possessing these qualities and from it, the rest of the north has been

pictured by analogy. The high elevation of Greenland and Ellesmere Island highly favours glaciation.

In general, however other Arctic lands, possess neither of these characteristics and over a large portion

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of the Arctic the scanty snows melt rapidly with the approach of summer. Most of the little snow that

does fall is soon swept by the wind into gullies and the lee of hills, so that over much of the Arctic

lands the winter snow cover is quite thin. Next consider the intense cold: at the North Pole the lowest

temperatures do not fall below -55°C, a figure that is occasionally reached in some parts of the

Canadian Prairies.

2. The Siberian winter is by no means as unpleasant as its extreme temperatures might suggest; the

air is often calm and the skies clear. Danger to man and beast occurs only when the wild "buran" or

"purga" blows. Such fearful blizzards also occur in the interior of Canada.

3. The irregularities of the winter isotherms over the Arctic Ocean are produced by the influence of

the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the North Atlantic, the isotherms are pushed far northward and it is

here that one finds the greatest positive anomaly of temperature in the world (the greatest departure

from latitudinal average). The winter temperatures in the vicinity of the Bering Strait are influenced by

the open waters of the Bering Sea. North of the strait the influence is limited to a small area in which

large local differences occur with different wind directions. Large and rapid temperature fluctuations

are otherwise not a common feature over the Arctic Ocean. During the greater part of the year, the area

is covered by a relatively thin layer of cold air which, to a great extent is isolated from the atmosphere

above. The air temperature near the surface is primarily dependent on the temperature of the ice

surface itself.

4. The winter temperatures over the pack-ice remain nearly constant for a considerable time. This

"flat" minimum represents the temperature at which the loss of heat, by radiation from the snow and

ice surface, balances the amount of heat which, is conducted to the surface from the water under the

ice. It also depends on the heat transported into the Arctic by warm air advection in advance of

cyclones. During the long periods of infrequent cyclone activity in winter, heat transfer to the surface

from the atmosphere is small, since the eddy conductivity is very small in the inversion layer.

5. The presence, or nearness, of open water in the winter half of the year, is reflected in the mean air

temperature pattern. Broad tongues of warmth extend into the Barents Sea. The strongest influx of

heat by cyclonic activity occurs in the Atlantic section of the Arctic Ocean in January and February.

From April until June the temperature rises quite rapidly, until the ice begins to melt. The mean

summer surface temperatures remain fairly constant, conforming to the nature of the underlying

surface. Almost all regions are warmest in July (Table 2-2). Temperatures close to the melting point

prevail over the pack-ice and along the fringes of the Greenland ice -cap and outer islands of the

Archipelago. Maximum temperatures in the Arctic Basin do not exceed 5øC. An examination of large

departures of monthly mean temperatures from normal values for 20 coastal or island stations, with 20

or more years of observations, showed that the greatest departures are found in winter

(from

November to April) and small departures are most probable in July. In winter, the greatest departures

were observed in the Kara Sea, the smallest in the East Siberian Sea. In summer, the greatest

departures from normal temperatures were observed on the coasts of the peripheral seas and

decreasing toward the north.

6. The temperature inversions observed in all Arctic regions are especially prominent over the pack-

ice. During the darkness of winter in the high Arctic, the diurnal variation in temperature is irregular

and the maximum and minimum temperatures can occur at any time during the 24 hours of the day.

Variations are almost wholly due to changes in cloud cover or wind speed. Temperatures rise when

cloud cover increases or winds strengthen, and fall when winds decrease or skies clear.

7. Small temperature variability in the summer is a characteristic common to all stations in the inner

Arctic Ocean. The temperatures over the pack-ice never deviate far from the freezing point. The

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number of days with maximum temperature slightly above the freezing point is very nearly the same

all along the latitude of 75øN-around 40 days. The diurnal ranges are small.

206 FOG AND VISIBILITY

1. The range of visibility varies greatly in the Arctic. Arctic air masses are pure and the visual range

may be very great. Poor visibilities in the lower layers of the atmosphere result from the presence of

falling precipitation, fog or blowing snow. Haze and smoke pollution of air masses as they occur in

lower latitudes are rare in the Arctic.

2. During the warmer months, the most common type of fog is caused by the advection of relatively

warm and moist air over the melting ice and cold water. When the air moves in such a way that it is

cooled by contact with the colder underlying surface at a temperature below its dew point, it can no

longer hold the excess moisture which condenses to form mist or fog. When the air near the surface is

very stable, the fog will be shallow. On the other hand, turbulence in the lower levels of the air may

give conditions under which this excess moisture becomes visible as low stratus clouds. The areas,

which are most favourable for the formation of this type of summer fog or low clouds, are the open

waters of the Kara, Laptev, East Siberian and Chukchi Seas. Fifteen to 20 days with fog is a normal

condition for these areas during the summer months (Table 2-2). This advection-type fog occurs most

frequently over coastal waters adjacent to a local cold-air source or over open leads in the pack-ice.

Over the Arctic Basin it is extremely frequent and widespread during the period when the ice surface

is melting.

3. During the cold season, a type of fog known as "steam fog" or "Arctic sea smoke" occurs when

very cold air moves over open water. It occurs only when the contrast between air and water

temperatures is very great. This type of fog occurs most frequently over rivers, unfrozen lakes, open

leads or polynyas in the Arctic ice. Over the Arctic Basin steam fog serves the important purpose of

indicating the presence of open water.

4. Another winter phenomenon is the occurrence of "ice fog". This is defined as a type of fog

composed of suspended particles of ice, which occurs at very low temperatures, mainly below-30°C,

and usually during clear, calm weather at high latitudes. It occurs locally in the vicinity of human

habitation, herds of animals, vehicular or aircraft operation, and open water areas of fast-running

streams.

5. During the winter months, blowing snow is the most common cause of reducedvisibilities,

particularly in the more unprotected continental or insular locations. The frequency and severity of

blowing snow is of course related directly to the frequency of high winds and the presence of new or

powdery snow cover. Much of the snow of the Arctic falls in the form of loose granular flakes, which

are very readily whipped up by even relatively light winds. Observations show that with winds in

excess of 24 km/h, blowing snow is nearly always present in some degree in the cold Arctic. From

December to April the visibilities at most Canadian Arctic Stations are reduced to 10 km or less in

blowing snow about one third of the time. In the case of winds over 48 km/h, more than 80 percent are

associated with visibilities lower than 5 kilometres.

6. As long as no restrictions such as fog, precipitation or blowing snow are present in the Arctic

atmosphere, visibilities are remarkably good. The records of many travellers are filled with accounts

of the extreme range of visibility, and indeed it is not uncommon to see dark mountains 150 km

distant. On the other hand, the lack of contrast, particularly where all surface objects are covered with

new snow, results in the inability to distinguish objects close at hand. The addition of a uniformly

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overcast sky to an unbroken snow landscape gives rise to the condition usually referred to as "Arctic

white-out".

7. The frequent well-marked temperature inversions of the Arctic region explain the many accounts

of mirages. Objects that are known beyond any doubt to be below the horizon are not infrequently

visible as mirages and the periods of daytime and twilight are lengthened as the normal index of

refraction is altered. The inversion may also interfere with the identification of landmarks through

distortion, and estimation of vertical distances is made much more difficult.

207 CLOUD

1. The general character of cloud cover over the Arctic differs considerably from that considered

typical foremost temperate regions. The uniform and contourless stratus douds, which are by far the

most frequent type observed, give to the Arctic its reputation of a dull and monotonous appearance.

Over the Arctic Ocean during the summer, the low stratus-type of cloud constitutes from 70 to 80

percent of all cloud observed. The reason is the continuous cooling of the air from below over the

pack-ice fields and the presence of a source of moisture in the surface melt-water. These summer

clouds are extremely uniform, extending as large sheets over a much wider areas than other cloud

types. Along the coast in more southerly locations, the stratus clouds are proportionately less frequent.

In these regions, the cloud decks tend to be more often broken up by convective currents, with a

resulting increase in the proportion of stratocumulus cloud reported.

2. In the Norwegian Sea, mean cloudiness is high throughout the year, with a slight maximum in the

summer even though this is the season with the lowest cyclone frequency. For example, the mean

cloudiness at 74° N, 0°W is 80 percent in January, but 90 percent in July (Table 2-2).

3. Over the Arctic Ocean the cloud amount is lowest in winter and spring when the water content of

the very cold air is too low for cloud formation. A further characteristic of this area is that the seasonal

change in cloudiness takes place over a very short transitional period. Similar abrupt changes are

found only in monsoon areas when a complete change over takes place in the circulation pattern.

4. Areas showing relatively high cloud amounts in winter are the Norwegian and Barents Seas, where

the January, mean cloudiness exceeds 80 percent. These percentages decrease to below 70 percent in

the Kara Sea, 50 percent in the Laptev Sea, to about 40 percent in the East Siberian and Beaufort Seas

(Table 2-2). With few cyclones penetrating eastward beyond Novaya Zemlya, and little or no surface

moisture, only thin middle clouds and cirrus clouds prevail. The main feature of the winter cloud

pattern over the North American continent is the gradual decrease in cloudiness towards the north.

208 PRECIPITATION

1. Precipitation over most of the Arctic is very light and the annual amounts are so small that the

region is classified as a desert based on annual precipitation. Over the Polar Basin the annual

precipitation amounts average less than 250mm, while over the Siberian-American portion of the

Arctic Ocean and the northern part of the Canadian Archipelago the amounts are generally of the order

of 100 mm or less (Table 2-2). The greatest portion of the annual total precipitation falls in the

summer as rain, although the rate of fall is usually light and in most cases would be classed as drizzle

rather than rain. Heavier showers may occasionally occur.

2. Over much of the Polar Basin snow may be expected during all months of the year, and in the far

north even in summer the number of days with snow may exceed the number of days with rain.

Because of the low moisture concentration possible at very low temperatures, however, the winter

snow is very fine and when it occurs on windy days its measurement becomes very difficult. Freezing

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rain and freezing drizzle can also occur in the summer months. Available data indicate that on the

average freezing precipitation occurs less than 10 hours per year. The rate of accumulation is quite low

compared to the rapid buildup of ice that can occur in more southerly latitudes.

3. The characteristics of the snow cover, such as thickness and duration, have important climatic

effects on the heat and moisture exchange at the surface. Over the central Arctic Ocean, the snow

cover becomes established in late August. The average thickness of the scoured and drifted snow

cover may be about 350 - 400 mm by late spring. Steady snow melt, usually begins by the middle of

June-caused by solar radiation-and, although there are marked differences from year to year, the pack-

ice is usually snow-free by the middle of July.

4. South of latitude 75°, the annual precipitation amounts are higher. Some points in Greenland and

the European Arctic for example present an annual precipitation in excess of 1000 mm. As would be

expected from the high frequency of cyclonic activity, the Norwegian Sea area has the greatest annual

precipitation of all regions north of the Arctic Circle, although a secondary maximum of cyclonic

activity in Baffin Bay accounts for fairly high precipitation amounts along the west Greenland coast

and the eastern coasts of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.

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CHAPTER 3

OCEANOGRAPHY

301 DEFINITION

The Arctic Ocean surrounds the North Pole and is defined by the bordering land masses, of Siberia,

Alaska, Canada and Greenland. In an oceanographic sense, it is a single large basin connected

primarily with the Atlantic Ocean through two other major Arctic seas: Baffin Bay and the Greenland

Sea. The water characteristics within these smaller basins can be traced in large part to North Atlantic

water characteristics, which, have been modified through surface-acting processes associated with the

unique climatic conditions of the Arctic. The characteristics of the peripheral continental Arctic seas

are highly variable and are analysed in greater detail beginning with Article 307.

302 BATHYMETRY

1. The bathymetry of the Arctic basins (Figure 3 - 1) is now generally known, though in certain areas,

notably along the edge of the continental shelf within the Arctic Ocean, detailed information is

lacking.

2. The continental shelf on the North American side of the Arctic Ocean is narrow, 27-40 NM (50-75

km), whereas the sector bounded by Europe and Siberia is shallow and very broad, 220 NM (400 km),

with peninsulas and islands dividing it into five marginal seas: the Barents, Kara, Laptev, East

Siberian, and Chukchi. The Eurasian marginal seas occupy 36 percent of the area of the Arctic Ocean,

but contain only 2 percent of its volume of water. All the major continental rivers reaching the Arctic

Ocean, excepting the Mackenzie, flow into these seas. The combination of the marginal seas,

characterized by a high ratio of exposed surface to total volume, and a substantial input of fresh water

in summer, greatly influences surface water conditions in the Arctic Ocean.

3. The margin of the continental shelf is indented by numerous submarine canyons in the northern

Kara Sea and sea valleys in the Chukchi Sea. Oceanographically, the canyons are important as they act

as preferential pathways for the egress of water from the relatively warm Atlantic intermediate layer

onto areas of the continental shelf, where it comes within the influence of strong mixing processes,

and can locally modify the surface waters and ice cover.

4. The Lomonosov Ridge with sill depth of about 1390 m (760 fathoms) divides the Polar Basin into

two deep basins: the Eurasian on the European side (3600 m: 1970 fathoms), and the Canadian on the

North American side (3250 m: 1775 fathoms). The latter is further subdivided by the Alpha Rise,

which runs parallel to the Lomonosov Ridge at 270 NM (500 km) distance.

5. The continental shelf alongeast Greenland, south to 77øN, is broad (160NM: 300km) and contains

a system of banks no deeper than 200 m (110 fathoms). South of 77øN the shelf narrows until between

75øN and the Kap Farvel (Cape Farewell) it is less than 54 NM (100 km) wide. The shelf is marked by

several deep indentations, particularly in the southern part. At about 79øN, the Greenland Sea is

separated from the Polar Basin by a rise, with a sill depth of about 2800 m (1530 fathoms). South of

the rise, the Greenland Sea contains two deep basins. At 71 ø N, the Jan Mayen Ridge extends towards

Greenland, with a maximum depth of about 1520 m (830 fathoms), while in Denmark Strait the sill

depth is about 550 m (300 fathoms).

6. Around Baffin Bay, the shelf is everywhere, relatively narrow and nowhere exceeds a width of 54

NM (100 km). The shelf is widest off middle Baffin Island, Labrador, and west Greenland south of

78øN. The latter shelf contains numerous important fishing banks. Central Baffin Bay is a basin with

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303 WATER MASSES

1. In the Arctic, the most important processes conditioning and modifying the ocean water are:

a. Addition of fresh water from the land, primarily from the large Siberian rivers.

b. Addition of fresh water locally through melting of ice.

c. Heat gain through absorption of solar radiation in non-ice-covered areas during summer

d. Concentration of salt, and hence increase of density of surface water, through freezing and

convective overturn.

e. Heat loss to the atmosphere through any open water surface, including leads in the central

Arctic pack-ice.

2. The addition of fresh water and heat gain (a, b and c) lead to decreases in the density of the ocean

water and occur only during the summer (June-September). The concentration of salt and heat loss (d

and e ) lead to increases in the density of the surface water.

3. On the basis of temperature, the three water masses may be defined as follows:

a. Surface water (Arctic water), from the surface down to about 200 m (110 fathoms), which has

varying characteristics. In ice-covered areas the water temperature is close to that of freezing for

the salt content. In the usually ice-free areas (eastern Greenland Sea; along west Greenland north

through Davis Strait) temperatures may be a few degrees above freezing. Areas that are ice--free

in summer (Chukchi Sea; near-shore areas of other peripheral seas; most of Baffin Bay) may

seasonally exhibit surface temperatures of 1-2øC or more. Temperatures below the surface are

typically always cold, except in the Canadian Basin of the Arctic Ocean, where there may appear a

small temperature maximum (-1.0 °C) in the 75-100 m (40-55 fathom) layer. The salinity of the

surface layer may be uniform down to about 45 m (25 fathoms) and then increase until at 200 m

(110 fathoms) it is 34.5 parts per 1000.

b. The layer below the Arctic water, from about 200-900 m (110-490 fathoms), known as the

Atlantic layer, has temperatures above 0°C, with a maximum at 300-500 m (165-275 fathoms).

Salinities continue to increase over the surface values until by400 m (220 fathoms), and in many

instances shallower depths, they attain in the Greenland Sea and Arctic Ocean nearly uniform

values in the range 34.9-35.0 parts per 1000, and in Baffin Bay, 34.5-34.6 parts per 1000.

c. Beneath the Atlantic layer is bottom water with temperatures below 0°C and the same uniform

salinities attained in the Atlantic layer. Deep temperatures vary slightly from basin to basin: in the

Canadian Basin they are about -0.5°C; in the Eurasian Basin -0.9°C; in the Greenland Sea -1.2°C;

and in Baffin Bay -0.45°C.

4. The density of cold water is much more strongly influenced by salinity than by temperature: thus

the vertical distribution of density closely parallels that of salinity. On the basis of density, the Arctic

waters show a two--layer system, with a thin, less dense surface layer separated from the main body of

water of quite uniform density. Vertical motion and the vertical transfer of heat and salt, are therefore

restricted, and hence the surface layer acts as a "lid" over the large masses of warmer water below.

5. There is little spatial variation of surface temperature throughout the Arctic. Only those areas that

are normally ice-free all year round exhibit temperatures significantly above freezing. These areas are

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influenced by currents carrying warmer water into the Arctic (eastern Greenland Sea-West Spitsbergen

Current, and the northward-flowing current along west Greenland), and remain ice-free for that reason.

Seasonal temperature fluctuations occur in areas that are typically ice-free seasonally (July-September)

and include the coastal sectors of the peripheral seas of the Arctic Ocean, north of Bering Strait, and

around eastern and northern Baffin Bay. Areas in which major currents carry Arctic water towards the

North Atlantic

(western Baffin Bay-Canadian Current; western Greenland Sea-East Greenland

Current) remain ice-covered for longer periods and have temperatures close to freezing at all times.

6. In winter (October-April), a process of considerable importance in modifying the surface waters

takes place. When ice grows from sea-water the salt is largely excluded from the ice and results in a

local increase in salinity and hence density of the remaining water. This process takes place over the

entire surface of the Arctic areas, and the average ice growth is about 1.5 m each winter. However, the

ice cover is not continuous and leads are continually opening and closing. The heat loss to the

atmosphere from the open water of leads occurs perhaps 100 times faster than through ice (also

producing fog in the atmosphere).

304 CURRENTS

1. The circulation of the Arctic water is created by the rotation of the earth, and by density

differences, and is also wind--induced. In the Arctic Ocean the dynamic topography provides a

quantitative estimate of the currents. (See Figure 3-2). The net effect of tides is unknown though there

may be some asymmetry in their action, which would modify the circulations. The surface waters

from the whole Eurasian side of the Arctic Ocean tend to move towards the North Pole. This flow is

on the average slow, perhaps 2-3 cm/sec (0.04-0.06 kt), but after passing the region of the Pole it

becomes more concentrated and then exits from the basin as the East Greenland Current. In the

Beaufort Sea, the surface waters have a clockwise movement, apparently a result of the general wind

pattern; they tend to flow to the west along the shelf off the Canadian Arctic Islands, and to the north

in the area north of the Bering Strait.

2. Around the Greenland Sea there is a large cyclonic circulation, with average speeds in the

range10-20 cm/sec (0.2--0.4 kt). Inflow of North Atlantic water, both at the surface and at deep levels,

occurs along the east side of the sea as the West Spitsbergen Current. The East Greenland Current is

the major flow south on the west side. The surface water from the Arctic Ocean contributes to the

upper layers, while the deeper waters are largely from the West Spitsbergen Current, completing the

cyclonic gyre. The current closely follows the continental slope. Over the wide continental shelf of the

northern area (77-80°N) the currents tend to be weak and variable. The East Greenland Current seems

to accelerate towards the south, attaining speeds of 15-40 cm/sec (0.3-0.8 kt) near the Denmark Strait.

3. The same general pattern of circulation is found in Baffin Bay. A cyclonic circulation dominates

the bay; inflow of North Atlantic water occurs along western Greenland through the Davis Strait, and

inflow from the Arctic Ocean through Smith, Jones and Lancaster sounds. The Canadian Current runs

south along Baffin Island and, as it accumulates water from the various inflows, it in general shows

higher speeds towards the south

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Figure 3-2 Composite Surface Circulation

4. The circulation of the Atlantic layer (See Figure 3-3) has been deduced from the distributions of

temperature and salinity. Recent direct current measurements from Soviet and US drifting stations in

the Arctic Ocean and East Greenland Current in this layer (300-1000 m: 165-550 fathoms), shown as

vectors in Figure 3-3, confirm the general pattern of motion. On entering the Eurasian basin from the

Greenland Sea much of the water flows east along the edge of the Eurasian continental slope. The

water enters the Canadian Basin on a broad front across the Lomonosov Ridge. There appears to be a

general cyclonic circulation in the Eurasian Basin, and a smaller anticyclonic gyre in the Beaufort Sea.

Speeds are everywhere low, less than 5 cm/sec (0.1 kt).

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305 ADVECTION BOUNDARIES

1. Boundaries between the Arctic seas and the Atlantic and Pacific, and between the Arctic Ocean

and Baffin Bay, are of prime importance because of the major role of advection in determining the

characteristics of Arctic waters. The best known oceanographically of these is Bering Strait, through

which, in summer, Bering Sea surface water flows north into the Arctic Ocean through the Bering

Strait. In the eastern channel of the strait, speeds normally range between 50-l00cm/sec (1-2 kt)

though speeds over 150 cm/sec (2.9 kt) have been measured. Speeds are less in the western channel.

The volume transport is about 1 x 106 m3sec-1. The situation in winter is unknown, though it has been

suggested that the northward flow may be only one-fourth that of summer, and may even reverse on

occasion.

2. The general flow through the Canadian Archipelago is apparently from the Arctic Ocean towards

Baffin Bay. Recent documentation of the drift of ice island WH-5 through Nares Strait (connecting to

Smith Sound) confirms the general flow out of the Arctic Ocean through this strait. However, there

was evidence of large pulsations in the southerly flow; the indicated periodicity of a few days to weeks

suggests that major atmospheric disturbances may be important in significantly altering the flows

through these channels.

3. The strait between Greenland and Svalbard provides the primary connection between the waters of

the North Atlantic and the Arctic Ocean; water flows into the Arctic Ocean on the eastern side of the

strait and out of the Arctic Ocean on the western side as the East Greenland Current. A new concept of

the circulation in the Greenland Sea and of the East Greenland Current has resulted from analysis of

current measurements made from ice island Arlis-II during its drift along eastern Greenland during

winter, 1965. The measurements showed the volume transport of the current to be about 40 x 106m

3sec-1, an order of magnitude larger than previously estimated. This large transport is apparently a

major circulation internal to the Greenland-Norwegian seas; the outflow and inflow from the Arctic

Ocean represent only minor contributions and subtractions from a large cyclonic circulation. The

Arctic water portion of the current to a large extent controls the ice distribution, and so its presence is

significant out of all proportion to its small contribution to the total transport. The flow pattern in

Denmark Strait is similar to that in the strait between Greenland and Svalbard; the East Greenland

Current flowing south dominates the western side, and a flow from the North Atlantic runs north and

east around Iceland. The East Greenland Current, transporting polar ice south, usually occupies three

fourths or more of the surface of the strait. The flow regime varies seasonally, with summer usually

the time of minimum ice.

4. The Atlantic water does exercise considerable influence in the Norwegian Sea and along West

Greenland, where it is at the surface and the surface is exposed. The Atlantic water also exerts some

influences on ice cover and climate in the seas bordering Siberia. It enters these seas along submarine

canyons, particularly in the Kara Sea, where it works its way up to shallower depths. Through a more

pronounced influence of tidal action in the shallower water and the vigorous development of vertical

convection in winter, the heat of the Atlantic water is carried to the surface where it is apparently

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306 WESTERN NORTH AMERICAN WATERS

1. Bathymetry. The continental shelf between Point Barrow and Cape Prince Alfred varies in width

from less than 43 NM (80 km) in the west to nearly 86 NM (160 km) in the centre and northeast. Off

Alaska the cross profile is characteristic of the continental oceanic margin in all parts of the world,

consisting of the flat shelf and a steep upper continental slope that decreases as the Canada Basin is

reached at about 3660 m (2000 fathoms). East of the border the slope diverges from the mainland in a

swinging arc towards northwestern Banks Island, and the upper slope is gentler in this area than

farther west. The continental shelf is crossed by, several deep valleys. In the west is the Barrow Sea

Valley, which originates off Cape Franklin and deepens northeastwards to become 19 NM (35 km)

wide and U-shaped north of Point Barrow. A second valley is 50 NM (90 km) to the east. Northwest

of Mackenzie Bay is the Mackenzie Sea Valley, a broad, flat-bottomed valley leading from the outlet

of the Mackenzie River; 120 NM (225 km) to the northeast a smaller valley has been recognized. The

largest of the shelf valleys is a broad, asymmetrical feature, the Amundsen Trough, between Banks

Island and the mainland. It has an average width of 22 NM (40 km) and the floor is at about 440 m

(240 fathoms).

2. Currents. Surface currents in the Beaufort Sea are light and probably irregular, depending largely

on wind and pressure changes. The clockwise circulation of the Arctic basin sets southwest and west

at roughly 2.5 nautical miles/day (5 cm/sec) over the continental slope, but there is little evidence that

it is found inshore. Along the Alaskan coast there is thought to be a reverse (eastwards) current.

307 EASTERN NORTH AMERICAN WATERS (north of a line, Resolution Island - Kap

Farvel)

1. General

a. The eastern North American Arctic is centered around the waters of Baffin Bay which is

connected to the Arctic Ocean through the channels leading west and north through the Queen

Elizabeth Islands, and to the Atlantic Ocean through Davis Strait into the Labrador Sea. The body

of water separating west Greenland and northeastern Canada forms a 1025 NM-long channel

(1900 km) from the Arctic Ocean to the Labrador Sea.

b. The waters in eastern North America reflect the meeting of warmer waters from the Atlantic

with the frigid waters of the Arctic Ocean and are in a large measure controlled by the bathymetry

of the area. Baffin Basin, with a maximum depth of 2000 m (1100 fathoms), is separated from the

Labrador Sea by the Davis Strait ridge, which has maximum depths near 730 m (400 fathoms).

The adjacent channels shallow to depths of 145-185 m (80-100 fathoms) to limit the influence of

the Arctic Ocean to those waters found above those depths. Sea surface temperatures reach a

maximum in August with a high of 8.9°C in the Labrador Sea. Temperatures above 4.5°C are

found along the Greenland coast to 73°N and in the "North Water" off the entrance to Lancaster

Sound. In the channels, temperatures are near 0°C and warm to 1.7°C as the waters approach

Baffin Bay. The Arctic influence of the Canadian Current along the east coast of Baffin Island is

reflected in the depressed temperatures, 0.3 to 3.3° C. Summer salinities are as low as 25 parts per

1000 in the islands near the ice edge. Along the coasts they are near 30 parts per 1000 in the

Labrador Sea.

c. Tides in the area are of Atlantic origin and course through Davis Strait. Only in the extreme

north are Arctic tides in evidence. Time of high waters at the head of the Gulf of Boothia occurs

12 hours after that in the southern limits of the area. Tidal ranges are near 2-3 m over most of the

region, but go to 4 m on the southern side of Davis Strait and are over 12 m at the head of

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Frobisher Bay. Tidal currents are extremely variable throughout the region, being generally light

in open waters and as high as 7 knots in areas of large tidal ranges.

d. The general surface circulation, like the temperature and salinities, reflects the influences of

the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. The West Greenland Current flows northward from Kap Farvel at

speeds of 0.5 kt in Davis Strait. This current carries around the head of Baffin Bay where it is

joined by waters flowing southward through the islands to form the Canadian Current, which

flows along the east coast of Baffin Island. After crossing the Davis Strait Ridge, the Canadian

Current is joined by the west-flowing branch of the West Greenland Current to form the Labrador

Current. In the channels between the islands, currents are about 0.5 kt, while the Canadian Current

has velocities of about 0.2 kt. In the Gulf of Boothia the waters flow southward and exit through

Fury and Hecla Strait into Foxe Basin.

e. Because eastern Arctic America extends through more than 20 degrees of latitude, there are

extensive climatic differences. In general, the Canadian portion is colder than the Greenland coast

in winter, with many storms in the southern sector. During the summer season there is a greater

uniformity of weather over the whole area. The cold sea has a strong influence on coastal weather,

creating much fog and cloud and keeping temperatures below 15°C.

2. Bathymetry

a. The bathymetry of the northeast American Arctic basically consists of the shallow areas to the

north, in which are located the islands of the Canadian Archipelago with relatively deep channels,

and the deep Baffin Bay basin (2300m: 1257fathoms) which is separated from the Atlantic by the

Davis Strait Ridge.

b. At the entrance to the area from the Atlantic, the bottom rises gradually from the depths of the

Labrador Basin (4000 m: 2200 fathoms) to the Davis Strait Ridge where depths are less than 800

m (440 fathoms). This ridge separates the Labrador Basin from the Baffin Bay Basin where depths

exceed 1825 m (1000 fathoms). On the Canadian side of the Labrador Sea, the 200 m line is very

narrow and is cut by the deep fiords of Frobisher Bay and Cumberland Sound. The Greenland

shelf is well defined and narrow near Kap Farvel, and broadens northward to form Fylla, Little

Hellefiske and Great Hellefiske Banks. North of Disko Island the continental shelf narrows and all

but disappears near Cape York. Along the Baffin Island shore the shelf is narrow.

c. The channels between the Arctic islands are deep where they join the major basins in the area.

However, in every case they have shallow ridges which limit the depth and hence the types of

waters that may be drawn through them.

d. The narrow channel that separates Canada from northwest Greenland consists of two basins,

Hall and Kane, joined by Robeson and Kennedy Channels and Smith Sound. In the north, at the

narrowest par the two shores, are separated by only 11 NM (20 km) of water. The shallowest part

is in the north part of Kane Basin where the sill depth is 90-185 m (50-100 fathoms). The floor

slopes away in both directions to 365-450 m (200-250 fathoms) in the Lincoln Sea, and to about

650 m (355 fathoms) at the south end of Smith Sound.

e. In the central part of Jones Sound, depths of 730 m (400 fathoms) have been reported.

Lancaster Sound has a wide flat floor that drops eastwards to 825 m (450 fathoms) where it enters

Baffin Bay. As in Jones Sound, submerged valleys enter the main trough from the side fiords and

channels. Lancaster Sound reaches a minimum depth of 90 m (50 fathoms) near Cornwallis Island

in Barrow Strait.

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f. Prince Regent Inlet (Gulf of Boothia) and Admiralty Inlet have similar bathymetric features.

Both are extremely shallow at the southern end. Depths increase northwards in what are

considered submerged glacial troughs, to greater than 825 m (450 fathoms) in the Gulf of Boothia.

Sills with depths of 330 m (180 fathoms) separate them from Lancaster Sound.

3. General Circulation

a. At Kap Farvel the waters of the West Greenland Current follow the Greenland coast to the

north. Over the continental shelf the waters are colder and fresher than those just beyond the shelf

edge. On approaching Davis Strait the warm waters are deflected westwards toward Baffin Island.

The cold waters are depleted through mixing in their northward flow so that the extension of the

West Greenland Current over the Davis Strait Ridge is relatively warm. This warmth is reflected

in weather conditions and ice coverage as described in Chapters 2 and 4.

b. By the time the north-flowing waters have reached the vicinity of Cape York, a large portion

of the heat content has been dissipated. However, they are still warmer and more saline than the

waters flowing southward from the Arctic Ocean, which are below freezing even in mid-summer.

c. The joining of the waters of the extension of the West Greenland Current, with those flowing

through the Arctic islands, forms the Canadian Current, which flows southward along the Baffin

Island coast. This current is of frigid character, carrying with it sea ice and icebergs. In the area

south of Davis Strait, it is joined by the warm waters of the West Greenland Current to form the

Labrador Current.

d. The waters in the three sounds bordering the northwest corner of Baffin Bay have a strong set

towards the Bay, with their freight of cold low-salinity water. At greater depths there is a draw-in

of the warmer high-salinity water from Baffin Bay to replace the water consumed in the mixing

process with the waters from the Arctic Ocean. This effect is most noticeable in Lancaster Sound.

e. In the northern part of Baffin Bay and Smith Sound there is an area described as "North

Water". In this region summer sea-surface temperatures have been reported as consistently warmer

than in surrounding areas. In winter various sources attribute it to be ice-free during all or most of

the year. Various reasons for the existence of the "North Water" have been advanced. The most

recent one considered is that it is due to the nature of the circulation, which keeps it ice-free and

hence allows the surface waters to be warmed through insulation.

4. Thermal Structure (Summer)

a. In general, below 35 m (20 fathoms) temperatures are uniformly cold with gradual warming

noticeable in the extreme north (15, 16) due to warmer Atlantic waters in the Arctic Ocean

entering the deep channel, and in the south (2) due to warmer waters of the adjacent Atlantic. In

winter, temperatures are near-1.5°C throughout the area north of Davis Strait, and between 2-4°C

at the southern boundary, except near the coast where temperatures are below 0°C. The influence

of the East Greenland Current as it rounds Kap Farvel (1) is shown by the cooler waters in the

upper 50 m (27 fathoms).

b. Above 35 m (20 fathoms) strong negative gradients occur, and these are coupled with strong

salinity gradients. In one instance (12) a strong positive gradient at the surface suggests cooling

due to ice movement.

c. Depressed sound channels are present throughout the summer, but are relatively weak due to

the small contrast in temperatures in the water column.

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308 NORTHEAST ATLANTIC WATERS

1. Bathymetry

a. The Norwegian and Greenland Seas are bounded on the west by the Greenland continental

shelf, and on the east by the Norwegian, Barents and Svalbard continental shelves. The depth of

the edges of the shelves varies greatly. A large area of the shelves is deeper than 185 m (100

fathoms) and frequently extends to

400 m (220 fathoms). Seaward of the shelves are the

continental slopes, with gradients of 1:15 to 1:40; leading down to the abyssal plains.

b. The Norwegian shelf is 50-140 NM (90-260 km) wide in its southern and central parts, but

narrows to 10 NM (19 km) off the Lofoten Islands. It is more irregular than normal continental

shelves and is crossed by a number of trough--like gullies; these are associated with the major

fiord systems of Norway. The Svalbard shelf is narrow and is only 11-40 NM (20-75 km) wide. It

is traversed by deep canyons originating in the fiords of Vestspitsbergen such as Kongsfjord and

Isfjord. The Svalbard shelf stretches to the banks south of Bjornoya, and from there to the banks

off northern Norway is the shelf area of the western Barents Sea. This shelf area is deeper and less

irregular than the shelves off Norway and Svalbard.

c. The Greenland continental shelf north of the Denmark Strait is generally broad (60-170 NM:

110-315 km) but narrows to about 15 NM (28 km) in the extreme north. It is widest at the Belgica

Bank. Typically the bottom is irregular and rough, but local smooth areas are common and there

are a number of shoal areas less than 100 m (55 fathoms) in depth. Troughs are present in the shelf

and are both parallel and normal to the shoreline. South from the Denmark Strait the Greenland

Shelf narrows from 170 NM (315 km) in width to 25 NM (45 km) at Kap Farvel. It is crossed by

prolongations of the fiords of east Greenland.

d. Around Iceland the continental shelf is up to 80 NM (150 km) wide in the west and north and

50 NM (90 km) in the east, but off the south coast it narrows to 10 NM (19 km).

e. The dominant feature of the central parts of the Norwegian and Greenland Seas is the mid-

oceanic mountain range forming the Iceland--Jan Mayen and Mohn Ridges. This is the

continuation of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which runs the entire length of the North and South

Atlantic Oceans, and which rises above sea level in Iceland. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is

characterized in its most elevated region by a central rift zone and by the fact that earthquake

epicentres tend to lie on or very near to its axis. These features are continued in the Iceland and

Jan Mayen Ridges. A narrow, deep-rift valley, 2-3 NM (4-5 km) wide at a depth of 3300 m (1800

fathoms), extends along their axial lines and has well-developed structural benches on its walls. It

ends at 78° 30'N where it meets the Vestspitsbergen block. The width of the rift mountains and

flanks on each side of this rift is about 35 NM (65 km) and the crests lie at depths less than 2200m

(1200 fathoms), but the mountains to the east of the rift are not easily discernible in the Greenland

Sea and may have been buried. On both flanks of the ridges are many seamounts. The mountains

of the ridge systems rise above the sea as the island of Jan Mayen. A massive, almost unbroken

ridge (the South Jan Mayen Ridge) runs south from the island with least depths between 800-1100

m (440-600fathoms).

f. The Greenland Sea Basin was, formerly considered to be separated from the North Polar Basin

by the Nansen Sill, but recent Soviet expeditions have shown that a continuous sill does not exist

and that is cut through the middle at about 1°E longitude by the deep Lena Trough, the minimum

depth of which is

3100-3500 m (1700-1900 fathoms). The mid-oceanic ridge turns in a

northwesterly direction from a region to the west of Prins Karls Forland (Vestspitsbergen) and

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ATP-17(C)

runs in what is known as the Spitsbergen Fracture Zone to the northeastern tip of Greenland. This

results in a bottom topography, with a complicated ridge and trench structure. To the east of this

zone is the gently undulating Yermak Plateau, which extends for 130 NM (240 km) from the

northwestern corner of Vestspitsbergen with its crest at depths shallower than

900 m (490

fathoms).

g. The basin of the Norwegian Sea is separated from the abyssal plains of the northernmost

Atlantic, with depths down to 3000 m (1640 fathoms) by the Scotland-Greenland Ridge. The

eastern part, between Scotland and the Faroes, is mainly less than 600 m (330 fathoms) in depth,

but between Faroe Bank and the Faroe Islands is a narrow channel through the ridge with a sill

depth of about 800 m (440 fathoms) and a least width of about 13 NM (24 km). The Faroes-

Iceland Ridge lies mainly at a depth of 400 500 m (220-275 fathoms) with the central part

shallower than 400 m (220 fathoms) and having several peaks.

h. The deeper parts of the Norwegian Sea can be divided into three regions. The Iceland basin

lies between the Iceland-Jan Mayen and South Jan Mayen Ridges and has depths of 2000-2560m

(1100-1400 fathoms) in its deepest part. The Norwegian Abyssal Plain, to the east of the South Jan

Mayen Ridge, is the most extensive of the three regions and has a considerable area deeper than

3500 m (1900 fathoms). To the east, it is bounded by the Norwegian Plateau, a flat-topped feature

generally shallower than 2000 m (1100 fathoms). An extension of this plateau to the northwest

separates the Norwegian Abyssal Plain from the Lofoten Abyssal Plain. This third region is

relatively extensive, and it has a large area greater than 3300m (1800fathoms) in depth. It is

bounded on the north by the Mohn Ridge. Beyond the Mohn Ridge is the basin of the Greenland

Sea. It consists in the south of the Greenland Abyssal Plain at a depth of 3660 m (2000 fathoms).

2. Water Masses and Currents

a. The water masses of the area together with their temperature and salinity characteristics are

listed in Table 3-1. The distribution of these water masses, as far as the upper layers of the ocean

are concerned, is shown in Figure 3-4. The temperature distribution at 200 m (110 fathoms) depth,

and the sea surface temperature isotherms at

5°C intervals for one of the coldest months

(February) and one of the warmest months (August). The trends of the 200 m (110 fathom)

isotherm indicate the direction of the current speed; the steeper the gradient, the greater the speed.

A comparison of the 200 m (110 fathom) isotherms with those for the surface in summer yields

some indication of the amount of thermal stratification in the warm season, whilst comparison

with those for winter shows the effect of the convective stirring of the water column brought about

by winter cooling of the surface layer.

b. The two dominant features are the warm currents which form the ends of the Gulf Stream

system and the cold currents that derive from the North Polar Basin. Taking the warm currents

first, the North Atlantic Drift divides at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at about latitude 51°N. One arm

moves northwards parallel to the ridge towards Iceland where it becomes the Irminger Current.

This latter carries the Irminger Atlantic Water and it bifurcates to the west of Iceland, one branch

proceeding northwards and then turning east along the north coast of Iceland, and the other turning

first west and then south to flow along the East Greenland Slope, eventually to round Kap Farvel

and flow northwards along the West Greenland Slope in the Davis Strait.

c. A second arm of the North Atlantic Drift carries warm Northeast Atlantic Water eastwards

towards the British Isles and passes through the Faroes-Shetlands Channel and to the west of the

Faroe Islands into the Norwegian Sea where it is known as the Atlantic or Norwegian Current.

This current moves northwards along the Norwegian coast and gradually becomes cooler and less

saline as it does so. Off northwest Norway it divides into the North Cape Current, which flows

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Military reference books and manuals (2009-2023, Volume 3) - page 26